Adjustments in purchasing arrangements to support the COVID-19 health sector response: evidence from eight middle-income countries.

The COVID-19 pandemic has triggered several changes in countries' health purchasing arrangements to accompany the adjustments in service delivery in order to meet the urgent and additional demands for COVID-19-related services. However, evidence on how these adjustments have played out in low- and middle-income countries is scarce. This paper provides a synthesis of a multi-country study of the adjustments in purchasing arrangements for the COVID-19 health sector response in eight middle-income countries (Armenia, Cameroon, Ghana, Kenya, Nigeria, Philippines, Romania and Ukraine). We use secondary data assembled by country teams, as well as applied thematic analysis to examine the adjustments made to funding arrangements, benefits packages, provider payments, contracting, information management systems and governance arrangements as well as related implementation challenges. Our findings show that all countries in the study adjusted their health purchasing arrangements to varying degrees. While the majority of countries expanded their benefit packages and several adjusted payment methods to provide selected COVID-19 services, only half could provide these services free of charge. Many countries also streamlined their processes for contracting and accrediting health providers, thereby reducing administrative hurdles. In conclusion, it was important for the countries to adjust their health purchasing arrangements so that they could adequately respond to the COVID-19 pandemic, but in some countries financing challenges resulted in issues with equity and access. However, it is uncertain whether these adjustments can and will be sustained over time, even where they have potential to contribute to making purchasing more strategic to improve efficiency, quality and equitable access in the long run.

Conocimientos y percepciones de niñas, niños y adolescentes sobre la sexualidad / Notions and perceptions of girls, boys and adolescents about sexuality / Noções e percepções de meninas, meninos e adolescentes sobre sexualidade

Resumen Objetivo: Explorar los conocimientos y las percepciones de algunas niñas, niños y adolescentes respecto a la sexualidad, el ejercicio de los derechos sexuales y reproductivos, y la educación sexual. Metodología: se realizó un estudio cualitativo, a partir de 25 entrevistas semiestructuradas apersonas de entre 9 y 14 años, en 8 municipios priorizados de Colombia. Resultados: En todos los municipios se encontró un desconocimiento generalizado de los temas abordados, así como significados reducidos y percepciones en extremo negativas sobre la sexualidad, la educación sexual, los derechos sexuales y reproductivos, y la salud sexual, a lo que se suman fuertes estereotipos de género. Conclusiones: Los conocimientos y las connotaciones negativas asignadas a los conceptos por los que se preguntó dan cuenta de la limitada y precaria educación sexual que han recibido niñas, niños y adolescentes de estos municipios, lo que significa que aunque en el país existe un marco legal propicio y unas metas relacionadas con el abordaje integral de la sexualidad desde la primera infancia, estos no se están cumpliendo.

Abstract Objective: To explore children knowledge and perceptions about sexuality, exercise of sexual and reproductive rights and sex education. Methodology: A qualitative study was conducted through 25 semi-structured interviews with girls, boys and adolescents from 9 to 14 years old, in eight prioritized municipalities in Colombia. Results: In all the municipalities there was a widespread ignorance about the issues addressed, as well as reduced meanings and extremely negative perceptions about sexuality, sex education and sexual and reproductive rights and health; additionally were found strong gender stereotypes. Conclusions: perceptions and negative connotations assigned to the concepts that were inquired, accounted the limited and precarious sex education that girls and boys from these municipalities have received, which mean that, despite that in the country there is a favorable legal framework and goals related to the comprehensive approach of sexuality from early childhood, these are not being met.

Resumo Objetivo: Explorar o conhecimiento e as percepções de meninas e meninos sobre a sexualidade, o exercício dos direitos sexuais e reprodutivos e a educação sexual. Metodologia: Estudo qualitativo realizado por meio de entrevistas semiestruturadas com 25 meninas, meninos e adolescentes entre os nove e os 14 anos, em oito municípios priorizados da Colômbia. Resultados: Em todos os municípios foi encontrado um desconhecimiento generalisado sobre as questões abordadas, bem como significados reduzidos e percepções extremadamente negativas sobre a sexualidade, a educação sexual, os direitos esxuais e reprodutivos e a saúde sexual, e também fortos estereótipos de gênero. Conclusões: Os conhecimentos e as conotações negativas atribuídas aos conceitos o que foram preguntados, dão conta da educação sexual limitada e precária recebida por meninos, meninas e adolescentes desses municipios, o que significa, que a pesar de que o país tem um marco legal favorável e metas relacionadas com o abordagem integral da sexualidade desde a prmeira infancia, estes não estão sendo atendidos.

Respuesta social a las medidas no farmacológicas para controlar la propagación del COVID-19 en Colombia / Social response to non-pharmacological measures to control the spread of COVID-19 in Colombia

Resumen Introducción: Los gobiernos al inicio de la pandemia, con el fin de mitigar y suprimir la propagación del virus implementaron medidas no farmacológicas ante la falta de vacunas y tratamientos farmacológicos efectivos. El gobierno colombiano emprendió acciones para controlar el contagio del COVID-19. Estas afectaron a la población y por ello el país requiere una evaluación profunda de la respuesta social ante la pandemia. Objetivo: Analizar la respuesta social a las medidas no farmacológicas para controlar la propagación del COVID-19 en Colombia. Metodología: Estudio exploratorio descriptivo transversal. El total de personas que respondieron la encuesta fue de 3549 adultos, entre el 8 y el 20 de abril de 2020. Resultados: En el país existen tres grupos de personas que han respondido a la pandemia de formas diferentes: quienes se resisten (34 %), quienes sufren (26 %) y quienes la aceptan (40 °%). En general, 90 % de las personas adoptó al menos una medida para protegerse, el 68 % adoptó más de tres medidas de higiene y autocuidado y un 60 °% implementó más de tres medidas de distanciamiento físico. Conclusiones: Al inicio de la pandemia, la ausencia de una vacuna hizo que las acciones individuales fueran tan importantes como las medidas implementadas por el gobierno. Sin embargo, pedagogía a nivel comunitario y el acceso a la información correcta, clara y concisa contribuyó con cambios de comportamientos positivos en la higiene, autocuidado y adherencia a medidas de distanciamiento, todo esto ha sido crucial para detener la propagación de COVID-19.

Abstract Introduction: At the beginning of the pandemic, governments implemented non-pharmacological measures to mitigate and suppress the spread of the virus in the absence of vaccines and effective pharmacological treatments. The Colombian government undertook actions to control the spread of COVID-19. These affected the population; therefore, the country requires a thorough evaluation of the social response to the pandemic. Objective: To analyze the social response to non-pharmacological measures to control the spread of COVID-19 in Colombia. Methodology: Cross-sectional descriptive exploratory study. The total number of people who responded to the survey was 3549 adults, between April 8 and 20, 2020. Results: There are three groups of people in the country who are responding to the pandemic in different ways: those who resist (34%), those who suffer (26%) and those who accept it (40%). Overall, 90% of people took at least one measure to protect themselves and others, 68% took more than three hygiene and self-care measures, 60% implemented more than three physical distancing measures. Conclusions: At the beginning of the pandemic, in the absence of a vaccine, individual actions are as important as measures implemented by the government. However, community-level education and access to correct, clear and concise information contributed to positive behavioral changes in hygiene, self-care and adherence to distancing measures, all of which are crucial to stop the spread of COVID-19.

Measuring socioeconomic and health financing inequality in maternal mortality in Colombia: a mixed methods approach.

BACKGROUND: Understanding health financing reforms and means is key to evaluate how maternal health has improved. Problems related to health financing policies are contributing to inadequate quality of care and inequitable use of healthcare by pregnant women, resulting in poor maternal health outcomes. The purpose of the study was to measure socioeconomic and health financing related inequality in maternal mortality in Colombia as well as identifying potential epicenters of this inequality. METHODS: The data used was obtained from National Information of Social Protection (Sispro), the Department of Planning and National Statistics Department. Maternal mortality ratios were calculated by health insurance scheme and disaggregated by health spending per capita quintiles to allow for closer examination of inequality. The Slope Index of Inequality and Concentration Index were estimated to express absolute and relative inequality. We conducted interviews with key informants involved in the implementation of health financing and maternal health policies. RESULTS: The main finding shows inequality in maternal mortality across regions and in particular in the subsidized health insurance. The contributory health insurance scheme is closing gaps over time, but inequality in the subsidized scheme is significantly widening, which impacts the severity of overall measurements of inequality. 20% of territories with the lowest health spending per capita have reached 35% of maternal mortality, and it such rates are worsening. This means that there is a marginal exclusion in which most of maternal deaths still occur in the regions with lowest resources. CONCLUSIONS: Beyond the key issues in health financing, issues of quality of care must be addressed. The country must define its own approach to financing for maternal health coverage given its unique situation and starting point. Potential policy implications that emerged are: i) afro-Colombian, indigenous, poorer and migrant women must be put at the center of the maternal health care services; ii) better skills, Reproductive, Maternal, Newborn and Child Health RMNCH training and health worker retention strategies and training in rural, insular and remote geographical areas; ii) a better understanding of provider payment mechanisms and the incentives that influence provider behaviors; and iv) inequality prompt calls for a targeted approach, whereby care is directed toward the most disadvantaged regions.

How do we reach the girls and women who are the hardest to reach? Inequitable opportunities in reproductive and maternal health care services in armed conflict and forced displacement settings in Colombia.

OBJECTIVES: This paper assesses inequalities in access to reproductive and maternal health services among females affected by forced displacement and sexual and gender-based violence in conflict settings in Colombia. This was accomplished through the following approaches: first, we assessed the gaps and gradients in three selected reproductive and maternal health care services. Second, we analyzed the patterns of inequalities in reproductive and maternal health care services and changes over time. And finally, we identified challenges and strategies for reaching girls and women who are the hardest to reach in conflict settings, in order to accelerate progress towards universal health coverage and to contribute to meeting the Sustainable Development Goals of good health and well-being and gender equality by 2030. METHODS: Three types of data were required: data about health outcomes (relating to rates of females affected by conflict), information about reproductive and maternal health care services to provide a social dimension to unmask inequalities (unmet needs in family planning, antenatal care and skilled births attendance); and data on the female population. Data sources used include the National Information System for Social Protection, the National Registry of Victims, the National Administrative Department of Statistics, and Demographic Health Survey at three specific time points: 2005, 2010 and 2015. We estimated the slope index of inequality to express absolute inequality (gaps) and the concentration index to expresses relative inequality (gradients), and to understand whether inequality was eliminated over time. RESULTS: Our findings show that even though absolute health care service-related inequalities dropped over time, relative inequalities worsened or remain unchanged. All summary measures still indicated the existence of inequalities as well as common patterns. Our findings suggest that there is a pattern of marginal exclusion and incremental patterns of inequality in the reproductive and maternal health care service provided to female affected by armed conflict. CONCLUSIONS: Overall, the effects of conflict continue to threaten reproductive and maternal health in Colombia, impeding progress towards the realization of universal health care (UHC) and reinforcing already-existing inequities. Key messages and steps forward include the need to understand the two distinct patterns of inequalities identified in this study in order to prompt improved general policy responses. Addressing unmet needs in reproductive and maternal health requires supporting gender equality and prioritizing the girls and women in regions with the highest rates of victims of armed conflict, with the objective of leaving no girl or woman behind. This analysis represents the first attempt to analyze coverage-related inequality in reproductive and maternal health care services for female affected by armed conflict in Colombia. As the World Health Organization and global health systems leaders call for more inclusive engagement, this approach may serve as the key to shaping people-centred health systems. In this particular case, health care facilities must be located in close proximity to girls and women in conflict and post-conflict settings in order to deliver essential reproductive and maternal health care services. Finally, reducing inequalities in opportunities would not only promote equity, but also drive sustainable development.

Envejecimiento poblacional y desigualdades sociales en la mortalidad del adulto mayor en Colombia ¿Por qué abordarlos ahora y dónde comenzar? / Population aging and social inequalities in the mortality of the elderly in Colombia. Why should we approach it now and where to start? / Envelhecimento populacional e desigualdades sociais na mortalidade de pessoas idosas na Colômbia: por que abordá-los agora e por onde começar?

Resumen Objetivo: analizar la magnitud del envejecimiento poblacional y las desigualdades sociales presentes en la mortalidad del adulto mayor en Colombia. Métodos: estudio ecológico usando datos sub-nacionales de mortalidad, pobreza, barreras de acceso a los servicios de salud y analfabetismo, y de la población adulta mayor para analizar brechas. Se calcularon y compararon tendencias de tres indicadores de impacto: la esperanza de vida (2005-2020), los Índices de envejecimiento y sobre-envejecimiento (2005-2012). Se estimaron tres medidas para resumir la desigualdad absoluta y relativa: el Índice de Desigualdad de la Pendiente (IDP), el Índice Relativo de Desigualdad (IRD) de Kunst y Mackenbach y el Índice de Concentración (IC). Todos los análisis se realizaron usando la biblioteca para medición de desigualdades de Epidat 4.2. Resultados: la proporción de personas mayores será cada vez mayor en Colombia. Las barreras de acceso a los servicios de salud fue la dimensión más inequitativa. Dos patrones de desigualdad fueron identificados: una exclusión marginal en el 60% de los adultos mayores con más ventajas y oportunidades, y un patrón de gradiente lineal presente solo en la incidencia de pobreza. El quintil 3 fue el grupo de departamentos más afectado por la inequidad a lo largo de las dimensiones evaluadas. Discusión: este estudio aporta evidencia sobre patrones de desigualdad en la mortalidad del adulto mayor. A nivel de tendencias, solo fue posible conocer que la brecha ha empeorado en incidencia de pobreza. Conclusiones: las recomendaciones se centran en cinco áreas de acción, para lograr un contexto deseable para el abordaje del envejecimiento poblacional y la reducción de las desigualdades, como desafíos del sistema de salud y de protección social, y que pueden socavar la realización progresiva de la cobertura universal en salud y el logro de los objetivos de desarrollo sostenible para 2030.

Abstract Objective: to analyze the magnitude of population aging and the social inequalities existing in the mortality of the elderly in Colombia. Methodology: an ecological study which analyzed the breaches between the people via sub-national data on mortality, poverty, barriers preventing access to healthcare services, illiteracy and the elderly population. The trends of three impact indicators were calculated and compared: life expectancy (2005-2020), aging and over-aging indices (2005-2012). Furthermore, three measures were estimated to summarize absolute and relative inequality: the slope index of inequality (SII), Kunst and Makenbach's relative index of inequality (RII) and the concentration index (CI). All analyses were performed using the library for measuring inequalities included with Epidat 4.2. Results: the ratio of elderly people will be ever increasing in Colombia. The barriers preventing access to healthcare services were the most inequitable dimension. Two patterns of inequality were identified: a marginal exclusion for 60% of the elderly who had the most advantages and opportunities, and a linear gradient pattern existing only in the incidence of poverty. The third quintile was the group of departments most affected by the inequity throughout the assessed social dimensions. Discussion: this study provides evidence of inequality patterns in the mortality of the elderly. Regarding the trends, it was only possible to know that the breach has become larger in terms of poverty incidence. Conclusions: five areas of action are described in order to achieve a desirable context to address population aging and the reduction of social inequalities as challenges for the healthcare and social protection system. These challenges may undermine the progressive realization of universal healthcare coverage and the achievement of sustainable development goals by 2030.

Resumo Objetivo: Analisar a dimensão do envelhecimento populacional e das desigualdades sociais presentes na mortalidade de pessoas idosas na Colômbia. Metodologia: Estudo ecológico que se utiliza de dados regionais de mortalidade, pobreza, barreiras de acesso aos serviços de saúde e analfabetismo, e da população idosa para analisar lacunas. Foram calculadas e comparadas as tendências de três indicadores de impacto: a expectativa de vida (2005-2020), os Índices de envelhecimento e de sobre-envelhecimento (2005-2012). Foram estimadas três medidas para resumir a desigualdade absoluta e relativa: o Índice de Desigualdade da Inclinação (IDP), o Índice Relativo de Desigualdade (IRD) de Kunst e Mackenbach e o Índice de Concentração (IC). Todas as análises foram realizadas com a utilização da biblioteca para medição de desigualdades Epidat 4.2. Resultados: A proporção de pessoas idosas será cada vez maior na Colômbia. As barreiras de acesso aos serviços de saúde foi o aspecto mais desigual. Dois padrões de desigualdade foram identificados: uma exclusão marginal nos 60% de adultos idosos com mais vantagens e oportunidades; e um padrão de gradiente linear presente somente na incidência de pobreza. O quintil 3 foi o estrato mais afetado pela desigualdade no decorrer das dimensões avaliadas. Discussão: Este estudo contribui com a evidência sobre padrões de desigualdade na mortalidade da pessoa idosa. Em termos de tendências, só foi possível reconhecer que a lacuna agrava-se com a incidência de pobreza. Conclusões: As recomendações concentram-se em cinco áreas de ação com o intuito de que se alcance um contexto desejável para a abordagem do envelhecimento populacional e da redução das desigualdades como desafios do sistema de saúde e de proteção social, e que podem enfraquecer a realização progressiva da cobertura universal em saúde e realização dos objetivos de desenvolvimento sustentável para 2030.

Reducing causes of inequity: policies focused on social determinants of health during generational transitions in Colombia.

Health inequalities often result from social inequities, and those, in turn, are generated by social determinants of health (SDoH). Hence, to reduce health inequalities, it is necessary to consider all health-related determinants. Disadvantages arise even before birth, and they tend to accumulate throughout an individual's life. Thus, policy actions intended to overcome these health inequalities should take place before birth and continue throughout life. This review aimed to describe the first steps of that Colombia has taken to reduce health inequalities during generational transitions through an inter-sectorial coordination upon SDoH. The review was guided by the question 'What are the implemented policy responses aimed to reduce health inequalities during generational transitions in Colombia, and what can be considered in order to improve inter-sectorial coordination?' Given the novelty of this area of research, the existent literature is presented more as narrative, rather than systematic review. Seven policies focused on five SDoH have been taken as examples. These policies show how Colombia plans to reduce health inequalities by acting upon these five SDoH: (1) early childhood development, (2) opportunities for education and first employment, (3) improved housing conditions, (4) social protection for families, and (5) vulnerable populations (e.g. elderly population). Additionally, more specific cases are examined in more detail that take place during sensitive periods in a person's life, such as pregnancy, birth, early childhood, entry to higher education, first time job search, family building, elderly years, and so on. The evidence represents Colombian's first steps toward reducing health inequalities during generational transitions. Elimination of health inequalities becomes feasible when governments recognize the importance of bringing opportunities to the worst-off populations, as well as the pivotal role of properly and well-coordinated inter-sectorial actions.

[Advances in eHealth in Colombia: adoption of the National Cancer Information System]. / Progresos en eSalud en Colombia: adopción del Sistema de Información Nacional en Cáncer.

The use of the eHealth has become feasible and acceptable in a variety of fields and contexts in Colombia. This article reports on the Colombian experience using eHealth tools applied to cancer, as well as the challenges, emerging trends, and positive outcomes related to the use of information technology and communication in the national health system. One of these outcomes has been Colombia's National Cancer Information System, in place since 2012, which is the result of political action and strategies focused on applying these innovative technologies in the field of health. The final judgment will depend of the extent to which it is possible to guide timely, effective, and coordinated interventions to optimize care for people with cancer, improve their quality of life, and significantly reduce inequalities. Once this is achieved, the next step should be to replicate the experience and apply eHealth-based tools more broadly in the contexts and fields that the country and the Region require.

Progresos en eSalud en Colombia: adopción del Sistema de Información Nacional en Cáncer / Advances in eHealth in Colombia: adoption of the National Cancer Information System

El uso de la eSalud es factible y aceptable en muy variados temas y contextos en Colombia. En este artículo se expone la experiencia colombiana en el uso de las herramientas de eSalud aplicadas al cáncer, así como los retos, las tendencias emergentes y los efectos positivos relacionados con el uso de las tecnologías de la información y las comunicaciones en el Sistema Nacional de Salud. Como resultado, en Colombia se cuenta desde 2012 con el Sistema de Información Nacional en Cáncer, resultado de acciones políticas y estrategias dirigidas a aplicar estas novedosas tecnologías en la salud. La valoración final dependerá de la medida en que se logre orientar intervenciones oportunas, eficaces y articuladas para optimizar la atención de las personas con cáncer, mejorar su calidad de vida y reducir significativamente las desigualdades. De lograrse, el siguiente paso debe ser replicar esta experiencia y aplicar las herramientas basadas en eSalud de forma más amplia en los contextos y temas que el país y la Región requieren.

The use of the eHealth has become feasible and acceptable in a variety of fields and contexts in Colombia. This article reports on the Colombian experience using eHealth tools applied to cancer, as well as the challenges, emerging trends, and positive outcomes related to the use of information technology and communication in the national health system. One of these outcomes has been Colombia's National Cancer Information System, in place since 2012, which is the result of political action and strategies focused on applying these innovative technologies in the field of health. The final judgment will depend of the extent to which it is possible to guide timely, effective, and coordinated interventions to optimize care for people with cancer, improve their quality of life, and significantly reduce inequalities. Once this is achieved, the next step should be to replicate the experience and apply eHealth-based tools more broadly in the contexts and fields that the country and the Region require.