Adipocyte Glucocorticoid Receptor Activation With High Glucocorticoid Doses Impairs Healthy Adipose Tissue Expansion by Repressing Angiogenesis.

In humans, glucocorticoids (GCs) are commonly prescribed because of their anti-inflammatory and immunosuppressive properties. However, high doses of GCs often lead to side effects, including diabetes and lipodystrophy. We recently reported that adipocyte glucocorticoid receptor (GR)-deficient (AdipoGR-KO) mice under corticosterone (CORT) treatment exhibited a massive adipose tissue (AT) expansion associated with a paradoxical improvement of metabolic health compared with control mice. However, whether GR may control adipose development remains unclear. Here, we show a specific induction of hypoxia-inducible factor 1α (HIF-1α) and proangiogenic vascular endothelial growth factor A (VEGFA) expression in GR-deficient adipocytes of AdipoGR-KO mice compared with control mice, together with an increased adipose vascular network, as assessed by three-dimensional imaging. GR activation reduced HIF-1α recruitment to the Vegfa promoter resulting from Hif-1α downregulation at the transcriptional and posttranslational levels. Importantly, in CORT-treated AdipoGR-KO mice, the blockade of VEGFA by a soluble decoy receptor prevented AT expansion and the healthy metabolic phenotype. Finally, in subcutaneous AT from patients with Cushing syndrome, higher VEGFA expression was associated with a better metabolic profile. Collectively, these results highlight that adipocyte GR negatively controls AT expansion and metabolic health through the downregulation of the major angiogenic effector VEGFA and inhibition of vascular network development.

RevGel-seq: instrument-free single-cell RNA sequencing using a reversible hydrogel for cell-specific barcoding.

Progress in sample preparation for scRNA-seq is reported based on RevGel-seq, a reversible-hydrogel technology optimized for samples of fresh cells. Complexes of one cell paired with one barcoded bead are stabilized by a chemical linker and dispersed in a hydrogel in the liquid state. Upon gelation on ice the complexes are immobilized and physically separated without requiring nanowells or droplets. Cell lysis is triggered by detergent diffusion, and RNA molecules are captured on the adjacent barcoded beads for further processing with reverse transcription and preparation for cDNA sequencing. As a proof of concept, analysis of PBMC using RevGel-seq achieves results similar to microfluidic-based technologies when using the same original sample and the same data analysis software. In addition, a clinically relevant application of RevGel-seq is presented for pancreatic islet cells. Furthermore, characterizations carried out on cardiomyocytes demonstrate that the hydrogel technology readily accommodates very large cells. Standard analyses are in the 10,000-input cell range with the current gelation device, in order to satisfy common requirements for single-cell research. A convenient stopping point after two hours has been established by freezing at the cell lysis step, with full preservation of gene expression profiles. Overall, our results show that RevGel-seq represents an accessible and efficient instrument-free alternative, enabling flexibility in terms of experimental design and timing of sample processing, while providing broad coverage of cell types.

The Goto-Kakizaki rat is a spontaneous prototypical rodent model of polycystic ovary syndrome.

Polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS) is characterized by an oligo-anovulation, hyperandrogenism and polycystic ovarian morphology combined with major metabolic disturbances. However, despite the high prevalence and the human and economic consequences of this syndrome, its etiology remains unknown. In this study, we show that female Goto-Kakizaki (GK) rats, a type 2 diabetes mellitus model, encapsulate naturally all the reproductive and metabolic hallmarks of lean women with PCOS at puberty and in adulthood. The analysis of their gestation and of their fetuses demonstrates that this PCOS-like phenotype is developmentally programmed. GK rats also develop features of ovarian hyperstimulation syndrome. Lastly, a comparison between GK rats and a cohort of women with PCOS reveals a similar reproductive signature. Thus, this spontaneous rodent model of PCOS represents an original tool for the identification of the mechanisms involved in its pathogenesis and for the development of novel strategies for its treatment.

Pharmacological modulation of RORα controls fat browning, adaptive thermogenesis, and body weight in mice.

Beiging is an attractive therapeutic strategy to fight against obesity and its side metabolic complications. The loss of function of the nuclear transcription factor RORα has been related to a lean phenotype with higher thermogenesis in sg/sg mice lacking this protein. Here we show that pharmacological modulation of RORα activity exerts reciprocal and cell-autonomous effect on UCP1 expression ex vivo, in cellulo, and in vivo. The RORα inverse-agonist SR3335 upregulated UCP1 expression in brown and subcutaneous white adipose tissue (scWAT) explants of wild-type (WT) mice, whereas the RORα agonist SR1078 had the opposite effect. We confirmed the reciprocal action of these synthetic RORα ligands on gene expression, mitochondrial mass, and uncoupled oxygen consumption rate in cultured murine and human adipocytes. Time course analysis revealed stepwise variation in gene expression, first of TLE3, an inhibitor of the thermogenic program, followed by a reciprocal effect on PRDM16 and UCP1. Finally, RORα ligands were shown to be useful tools to modulate in vivo UCP1 expression in scWAT with associated changes in this fat depot mass. SR3335 and SR1078 provoked the opposite effects on the WT mice body weight, but without any effect on sg/sg mice. This slimming effect of SR3335 was related to an increased adaptive thermogenesis of the mice, as assessed by the rectal temperature of cold-stressed mice and induction of UCP1 in scWAT, as well as by indirect calorimetry in presence or not of a ß3-adrenoceptor agonist. These data confirmed that RORα ligands could be useful tools to modulate thermogenesis and energy homeostasis.NEW & NOTEWORTHY The regulation of adipose tissue browning was not fully deciphered and required further studies explaining how the regulation of this process may be of interest for tackling obesity and related metabolic disorders. Our data confirmed the involvement of the transcription factor RORα in the regulation of nonshivering thermogenesis, and importantly, revealed the possibility to in vivo modulate its activity by synthetic ligands with beneficial consequences on fat mass and body weight of the mice.

Microtubule-targeting drugs rescue axonal swellings in cortical neurons from spastin knockout mice.

Mutations in SPG4, encoding the microtubule-severing protein spastin, are responsible for the most frequent form of hereditary spastic paraplegia (HSP), a heterogeneous group of genetic diseases characterized by degeneration of the corticospinal tracts. We previously reported that mice harboring a deletion in Spg4, generating a premature stop codon, develop progressive axonal degeneration characterized by focal axonal swellings associated with impaired axonal transport. To further characterize the molecular and cellular mechanisms underlying this mutant phenotype, we have assessed microtubule dynamics and axonal transport in primary cultures of cortical neurons from spastin-mutant mice. We show an early and marked impairment of microtubule dynamics all along the axons of spastin-deficient cortical neurons, which is likely to be responsible for the occurrence of axonal swellings and cargo stalling. Our analysis also reveals that a modulation of microtubule dynamics by microtubule-targeting drugs rescues the mutant phenotype of cortical neurons. Together, these results contribute to a better understanding of the pathogenesis of SPG4-linked HSP and ascertain the influence of microtubule-targeted drugs on the early axonal phenotype in a mouse model of the disease.

Refined characterization of the expression and stability of the SMN gene products.

Spinal muscular atrophy (SMA) is characterized by degeneration of lower motor neurons and caused by mutations of the SMN1 gene. SMN1 is duplicated in a homologous gene called SMN2, which remains present in patients. SMN has an essential role in RNA metabolism, but its role in SMA pathogenesis remains unknown. Previous studies suggested that in neurons the protein lacking the C terminus (SMN(Delta7)), the major product of the SMN2 gene, had a dominant-negative effect. We generated antibodies specific to SMN(FL) or SMN(Delta7). In transfected cells, the stability of the SMN(Delta7) protein was regulated in a cell-dependent manner. Importantly, whatever the human tissues examined, SMN(Delta7) protein was undetectable because of the instability of the protein, thus excluding a dominant effect of SMN(Delta7) in SMA. A similar decreased level of SMN(FL) was observed in brain and spinal cord samples from human SMA, suggesting that SMN(FL) may have specific targets in motor neurons. Moreover, these data indicate that the vulnerability of motor neurons cannot simply be ascribed to the differential expression or a more dramatic reduction of SMN(FL) in spinal cord when compared with brain tissue. Improving the stability of SMN(Delta7) protein might be envisaged as a new therapeutic strategy in SMA.

A mutation of spastin is responsible for swellings and impairment of transport in a region of axon characterized by changes in microtubule composition.

Mutations of the spastin gene (Sp) are responsible for the most frequent autosomal dominant form of spastic paraplegia, a disease characterized by the degeneration of corticospinal tracts. We show that a deletion in the mouse Sp gene, generating a premature stop codon, is responsible for progressive axonal degeneration, restricted to the central nervous system, leading to a late and mild motor defect. The degenerative process is characterized by focal axonal swellings, associated with abnormal accumulation of organelles and cytoskeletal components. In culture, mutant cortical neurons showed normal viability and neurite density. However, they develop neurite swellings associated with focal impairment of retrograde transport. These defects occur near the growth cone, in a region characterized by the transition between stable microtubules rich in detyrosinated alpha-tubulin and dynamic microtubules composed almost exclusively of tyrosinated alpha-tubulin. Here, we show that the Sp mutation has a major impact on neurite maintenance and transport both in vivo and in vitro. These results highlight the link between spastin and microtubule dynamics in axons, but not in other neuronal compartments. In addition, it is the first description of a human neurodegenerative disease which involves this specialized region of the axon.

Bone marrow transplantation attenuates the myopathic phenotype of a muscular mouse model of spinal muscular atrophy.

Bone marrow (BM) transplantation was performed on a muscular mouse model of spinal muscular atrophy that had been created by mutating the survival of motor neuron gene (Smn) in myofibers only. This model is characterized by a severe myopathy and progressive loss of muscle fibers leading to paralysis. Transplantation of wild-type BM cells following irradiation at a low dose (6 Gy) improved motor capacity (+85%). This correlated with a normalization of myofiber number associated with a higher number of regenerating myofibers (1.6-fold increase) and an activation of CD34 and Pax7 satellite cells. However, BM cells had a very limited capacity to replace or fuse to mutant myofibers (2%). These data suggest that BM transplantation was able to attenuate the myopathic phenotype through an improvement of skeletal muscle regeneration of recipient mutant mice, a process likely mediated by a biological activity of BM-derived cells. This hypothesis was further supported by the capacity of muscle protein extracts from transplanted mutant mice to promote myoblast proliferation in vitro (1.6-fold increase). In addition, a tremendous upregulation of hepatocyte growth factor (HGF), which activates quiescent satellite cells, was found in skeletal muscle of transplanted mutants compared with nontransplanted mutants. Eventually, thanks to the Cre-loxP system, we show that BM-derived muscle cells were strong candidates harboring this biological activity. Taken together, our data suggest that a biological activity is likely involved in muscle regeneration improvement mediated by BM transplantation. HGF may represent an attractive paracrine mechanism to support this activity.

Activation of RNA metabolism-related genes in mouse but not human tissues deficient in SMN.

Mutations of the survival of motor neuron gene (SMN1) are responsible for spinal muscular atrophies (SMA), a frequent recessive autosomal motor neuron disease. SMN is involved in various processes including RNA metabolism. However, the molecular pathway linking marked deficiency of SMN to SMA phenotype remains unclear. Homozygous deletion of murine Smn exon 7 directed to neurons or skeletal muscle causes severe motor axonal or myofiber degeneration, respectively. With the use of cDNA microarrays, expression profiles of 8,400 genes were analyzed in skeletal muscle and spinal cord of muscular and neuronal mutants, respectively, and compared with age-matched controls. A high proportion of genes (20 of 429, 5%) was involved in pre-mRNA splicing, ribosomal RNA processing, or RNA decay, and 18 of them were upregulated in mutant tissues. By analyzing other neuromuscular disorders, we showed that most of them (14 of 18) were specific to the SMN defect. Quantitative PCR analysis of these transcripts showed that gene activation was an early adaptive response to the lack but not reduced amount of full-length SMN in mouse mutant tissues. In human SMA tissues, activation of this program was not observed, which could be ascribed to the reduction but not the absence of full-length SMN.

Inter- and intrastrain variation in mouse critical running speed.

With the generation of mouse models of human cardiovascular or neuromuscular disorders, the development of noninvasive methods to evaluate the physiological responses to exercise presents an important challenge. The possibility for determining critical speed (CS) in the mouse model was examined according to strain (CD1, C57BL/6J, FVB/N) and sex. Sixty mice performed four exhaustive runs on a treadmill to determine their CS. Twenty-one performed an incremental test to determine the velocity at the lactate threshold. CS was significantly different between the strains (P < 0.0001) but not between sexes. Two measures of heritability showed that CS was partially heritable. CS was not significantly different from lactate threshold velocity. We conclude that CS, which reflects the aerobic capacity, can be determined in mice, as in humans and horses. Considering the intrastrain variability, CS could represent a valuable means for designing an optimal and individualized physical training in mice.

Deletion of murine Smn exon 7 directed to liver leads to severe defect of liver development associated with iron overload.

Spinal muscular atrophy (SMA) is characterized by degeneration of lower motor neurons caused by mutations of the survival motor neuron 1 gene (SMN1). SMN is involved in various processes including the formation of the spliceosome, pre-mRNA splicing and transcription. To know whether SMN has an essential role in all mammalian cell types or an as yet unknown specific function in the neuromuscular system, deletion of murine Smn exon 7, the most frequent mutation found among SMA patients, has been restricted to liver. Homozygous mutation results in severe impairment of liver development associated with iron overload and lack of regeneration leading to dramatic liver atrophy and late embryonic lethality of mutant mice. These data strongly suggest an ubiquitous and essential role of full-length SMN protein in various mammalian cell types. In SMA patients, the residual amount of SMN allows normal function of various organs except motor neurons. However, data from mouse and human suggest that other tissues might be involved in severe form of SMA or during prolonged disease course which reinforce the need of therapeutic approaches targeted to all tissues. In addition, liver function of patients should be carefully investigated and followed up before and during therapeutic trials.

Riluzole attenuates spinal muscular atrophy disease progression in a mouse model.

Spinal muscular atrophy (SMA) is a motor neuron disease caused by mutations of the survival motor neuron 1 gene (SMN1). No curative treatment is available. Mutant mice carrying homozygous deletion of Smn exon 7 directed to neurons display a degenerative process of motor neurons similar to that found in human SMA. To test whether riluzole, which exhibits neurotrophic properties, might have a protective role in SMA, mutant mice were treated with it after the onset of the degenerative process. Riluzole improved median survival and exerted a protective effect against aberrant cytoskeletal organization of motor synaptic terminals but not against loss of proximal axons. These results demonstrate that the disease course of SMA can be attenuated after the onset of neuromuscular defects and may warrant further investigation in a therapeutic trial in SMA.

Intact satellite cells lead to remarkable protection against Smn gene defect in differentiated skeletal muscle.

Deletion of murine Smn exon 7, the most frequent mutation found in spinal muscular atrophy, has been directed to either both satellite cells, the muscle progenitor cells and fused myotubes, or fused myotubes only. When satellite cells were mutated, mutant mice develop severe myopathic process, progressive motor paralysis, and early death at 1 mo of age (severe mutant). Impaired muscle regeneration of severe mutants correlated with defect of myogenic precursor cells both in vitro and in vivo. In contrast, when satellite cells remained intact, mutant mice develop similar myopathic process but exhibit mild phenotype with median survival of 8 mo and motor performance similar to that of controls (mild mutant). High proportion of regenerating myofibers expressing SMN was observed in mild mutants compensating for progressive loss of mature myofibers within the first 6 mo of age. Then, in spite of normal contractile properties of myofibers, mild mutants develop reduction of muscle force and mass. Progressive decline of muscle regeneration process was no more able to counterbalance muscle degeneration leading to dramatic loss of myofibers. These data indicate that intact satellite cells remarkably improve the survival and motor performance of mutant mice suffering from chronic myopathy, and suggest a limited potential of satellite cells to regenerate skeletal muscle.

Neurofilament accumulation at the motor endplate and lack of axonal sprouting in a spinal muscular atrophy mouse model.

Mutations of survival of the motor neuron gene (SMN1) are responsible for spinal muscular atrophy (SMA), a common genetic cause of death in childhood. The cellular mechanism by which mutations of SMN1 are responsible for the selective neuromuscular defect and motor neuron cell degeneration observed in SMA has not been described. We have previously generated mice carrying a homozygous deletion of Smn exon 7 directed to neurons. We report here that these mutant mice display a dramatic and progressive loss of motor axons involving both proximal and terminal regions, in agreement with the skeletal muscle denervation process and disease progression. Moreover, we found massive accumulation of neurofilaments, including phosphorylated forms, in terminal axons of the remaining neuromuscular junctions. This aberrant cytoskeletal organization of synaptic terminals was associated with reduction of branched structures of the postsynaptic apparatus and defect of axonal sprouting in mutant mice. Together, these findings may be responsible for severe motor neuron dysfunction, and suggest that loss of motor neuron cell bodies results from a 'dying-back' axonopathy in SMA. Smn mutant mice should represent a valuable model for elucidating the pathway linking Smn to cytoskeletal organization.