The relationship of the source of punishment and personality traits with investment and punishment in a public goods game.

In this study, we investigated the motivations behind punishing individuals who exploit common resources, a phenomenon crucial for resource preservation. While some researchers suggest punishment stems from concern for the common good, others propose it is driven by anger toward free riders. To probe these motivations, we developed a modified public goods game in which participants had the option to use their own money or the money from the common pool to punish free riders. The analysis included choice behavior, mouse trajectories, and personality traits like anger, empathy, and altruism. According to our results, investments were highest, and punishment was strongest if participants could punish using credits from the common pool, indicating that this is the preferred option to diminish free riding and maintain cooperation in public goods and common good contexts. Also, punishment was highest if the punisher's own investment was high, and the investment of others was low. Concerning traits, highly altruistic individuals tended to invest more and punish less in general but gave harsher punishments when they did choose to use the common pool punitively. Conversely, trait anger and trait empathy were linked to low investment while trait empathy also tended to be related to lower punishment. Taken together, these findings underscore the role of situational factors and personality traits in fostering cooperative behavior and shaping societal norms around costly punishment.

Electrophysiological correlates of why humans deviate from rational decision-making: A registered replication study.

In contrast to rational choice theory predicting humans to optimize expected utilities of choices, humans deviate from rational behavior in decision-making paradigms. Hewig et al. (2011) explored affective correlates of decision-making in the ultimatum game (UG) and the dictator game (DG). They found that feedback-related negativity (FRN), subjective valence ratings, and autonomic nervous system activity predicted rejection of monetary offers. This registered replication aimed to validate and extend these findings. Although behavioral patterns and results of subjective ratings closely matched the original study, not all psychophysiological effects were successfully replicated. Firstly, we could not replicate the reported effects of autonomic nervous system activity. Secondly, a quadratic instead of the originally proposed linear relation between the offer and the FRN emerged, possibly driven by the offer evaluation in economic games and the rewarding anticipation of successful punishment for low offers. Thirdly, P3 amplitudes mirrored the quadratic offer response pattern, generally peaking for the lowest offer. In contrast to the original study, P3 responses were larger in the UG compared with the DG. Finally, our findings indicate that participant-related higher midfrontal theta activation predicted lower acceptance behavior in the UG, with a systematic dampening effect for fairer offers. This highlights cognitive control as a crucial mechanism in economic decision-making to overcome behavioral defaults. Overall, our results conceptually support the original conclusion that decision-making in economic games is non-rational and dependent on the objective situation as well as emotional and neural markers, though not precisely as suggested by Hewig et al. (2011).

The association of dispositional anxiety with the NoGo N2 under relaxation instruction vs. speed/accuracy instruction.

Prior research suggests that cognitive control, indicated by NoGo N2 amplitudes in Go/NoGo tasks, is associated with dispositional anxiety. This negative association tends to be reduced in anxiety-enhancing experimental conditions. However, anxiety-reducing conditions have not yet been investigated systematically. Thus, the present study compares the effect of a relaxation instruction with the conventional speed/accuracy instruction in a Go/NoGo task on the correlation of the NoGo N2 with two subconstructs of dispositional anxiety, namely anxious apprehension and anxious arousal. As the test of differences between correlations needs considerable statistical power, the present study was included into the multi-lab CoScience Project. The hypotheses, manipulation checks, and the main path of pre-processing and statistical analysis were preregistered. Complete data sets of 777 participants were available for data analysis. Preregistered general linear models revealed that the different instructions of the task (speed/accuracy vs. relaxation) had no effect on the association between dispositional anxiety and the NoGo N2 amplitude in general. This result was supported by Cooperative-Forking-Path analysis. In contrast, a preregistered latent growth model with categorical variables revealed that anxious arousal was a negative predictor of the NoGo N2 intercept and a positive predictor of the NoGo N2 slope. Non-preregistered growth models, allowing for correlations of anxious apprehension with anxious arousal, revealed that higher anxious apprehension scores were associated with more negative NoGo N2 amplitudes with increased relaxation. Results are discussed in the context of the compensatory error monitoring hypothesis and the revised Reinforcement Sensitivity Theory.

Exploration of the influence of the quantification method and reference scheme on feedback-related negativity and standardized measurement error of feedback-related negativity amplitudes in a trust game.

Various approaches have been taken over the years to quantify event-related potential (ERP) responses and these approaches may vary in their utility connecting empirical research and scientific claims. In this work we compared different quantification methods as well as the influence of three reference methods (linked mastoids, average reference, and current source density) on the resulting ERP amplitude. We use the experimental effects and effect sizes (Cohen's d) to evaluate the different methodological variants and we calculate intraclass correlation coefficients (ICC). In addition, the bootstrapped standard error of the means (SME, Luck et al., 2021), which was recently suggested as a quality criterion for ERP research, is used for this purpose. Our example for an ERP is the feedback-related negativity (FRN) to feedback about trustee behavior in a trust game with participants in the trustor position. We found that the quantification methods concerning the FRN influenced the absolute value of condition effects in the experimental paradigm. Yet, the patterns of effects were detected by all chosen methods, except for the 'individual difference wave'-based peak window approach. In addition, our findings stress the importance of checking the reference electrodes concerning effects of the experimental conditions. Furthermore, interactions of topographical distribution and reference choice should be considered. Finally, we were able to show that the SME is lower for more datapoints that are given in the quantification period of the FRN, and higher for more negative FRN amplitudes. These biases may lead to divergence of SME and effect size detection. Therefore, if the SME was used to compare different processing choices one should consider controlling for these important aspects of the data and possibly include other quality criteria like effect sizes.

The Relation of Big Five Personality Traits on Academic Performance, Well-Being and Home Study Satisfaction in Corona Times.

INTRODUCTION: As a result of the protective measures taken to contain the COVID-19 pandemic, German students experienced home study in the spring of 2020. The present study addressed the relation between coping with the home study situation and personality. METHODS: The interrelations of the Big Five factors with students' well-being, study satisfaction and academic performance were examined in 287 German online participants. RESULTS: The results showed significant positive correlations of positive affect and conscientiousness, as well as of better academic performance and academic satisfaction. For extraversion, a positive supporting effect on the affective level emerged, although previous studies suggested negative influences of extraversion on affect in home study settings in other phases of the pandemic. Furthermore, in contrast, neuroticism showed a negative relation to study satisfaction and mood in home study. CONCLUSION: In summary, the personalities of students should be considered in order to provide protective measures and avoid negative coping effects.

Inhibition of midfrontal theta with transcranial ultrasound explains greater approach versus withdrawal behavior in humans.

Recent reviews highlighted low-intensity transcranial focused ultrasound (TUS) as a promising new tool for non-invasive neuromodulation in basic and applied sciences. Our preregistered double-blind within-subjects study (N = 152) utilized TUS targeting the right prefrontal cortex, which, in earlier work, was found to positively enhance self-reported global mood, decrease negative states of self-reported emotional conflict (anxiety/worrying), and modulate related midfrontal functional magnetic resonance imaging activity in affect regulation brain networks. To further explore TUS effects on objective physiological and behavioral variables, we used a virtual T-maze task that has been established in prior studies to measure motivational conflicts regarding whether participants execute approach versus withdrawal behavior (with free-choice responses via continuous joystick movements) while allowing to record related electroencephalographic data such as midfrontal theta activity (MFT). MFT, a reliable marker of conflict representation on a neuronal level, was of particular interest to us since it has repeatedly been shown to explain related behavior, with relatively low MFT typically preceding approach-like risky behavior and relatively high MFT typically preceding withdrawal-like risk aversion. Our central hypothesis is that TUS decreases MFT in T-maze conflict situations and thereby increases approach and reduces withdrawal. Results indicate that TUS led to significant MFT decreases, which significantly explained increases in approach behavior and decreases in withdrawal behavior. This study expands TUS evidence on a physiological and behavioral level with a large sample size of human subjects, suggesting the promise of further research based on this distinct TUS-MFT-behavior link to influence conflict monitoring and its behavioral consequences. Ultimately, this can serve as a foundation for future clinical work to establish TUS interventions for emotional and motivational mental health.

Investigating the role of the right inferior frontal gyrus in control perception: A double-blind cross-over study using ultrasonic neuromodulation.

Being able to control inner and environmental states is a basic need of living creatures. The perception of such control is based on the perceived ratio of outcome probabilities given the presence and the absence of agentic behavior. If an organism believes that options exist to change the probability of a given outcome, control perception (CP) may emerge. Nonetheless, regarding this model, not much is known about how the brain processes CP from this information. This study uses low-intensity transcranial focused ultrasound neuromodulation in a randomized-controlled double blind cross-over design to investigate the impact of the right inferior frontal gyrus of the lateral prefrontal cortex (lPFC) on this process. 39 healthy participants visited the laboratory twice (once in a sham, once in a neuromodulation condition) and rated their control perception regarding a classical control illusion task. EEG alpha and theta power density were analyzed in a hierarchical single trial-based mixed modeling approach. Results indicate that the litFUS neuromodulation changed the processing of stimulus probability without changing CP. Furthermore, neuromodulation of the right lPFC was found to modulate mid-frontal theta by altering its relationship with self-reported effort and worrying. While these data indicate lateral prefrontal sensitivity to stimulus probability, no evidence emerged for the dependency of CP on this processing.

Transcranial focused ultrasound modulates the emergence of learned helplessness via midline theta modification.

BACKGROUND: Helplessness and hopelessness are states closely related to depressive disorders. They ensue following the anticipated absence of valid behavioral options to alleviate an aversive state. One neural structure involved in the detection of such options, is the cingulate cortex (CC), which conveys the evaluation of behavior against the value of its outcome. Accordingly, CC-related EEG measures are thought to correlate to feedback evaluation but also to anxious and conflict-related states, signaling the need for further adaptation to current requirements. Against this background, this study investigated the role of CC functioning in the emergence and prevention of helpless/hopeless states by applying low-intensity transcranial focused ultrasound (litFUS) neuromodulation prior to a learned helplessness task. METHOD: In a randomized controlled double blind experimental setup with 55 participants, litFUS was used to inhibit the right lateral prefrontal cortex (lPFC), a region closely connected to CC modulation. Participants were instructed to play 8 games of chess against a computer that was unbeatable to them, while an EEG was recorded. Theta oscillation in midline electrodes, playing performance and self-rate measures on cognitive, affective and physiological parameters were assessed. RESULTS: The results show a considerable influence of litFUS neuromodulation of the lPFC on midline theta activity (Fz and Pz electrode position) which in turn correlated to several psychological variables including self-report data on emotion, cognition, and arousal as well as behavioral measures (playing performance). LIMITATIONS: Due to the small sample size and sample characteristics, results cannot be generalized to the field of clinical application. A replication of results in larger samples and in context of other sonication parameters is needed to increase the robustness of results and to maximize the efficacy of litFUS application. CONCLUSIONS: We conclude that the development of learned helplessness/hopelessness could be positively influenced in its course by litFUS neuromodulation of the right lPFC. In line with previous results, especially the posterior midline electrode Pz seems to be an interesting target for further research in this field as theta activity at this electrode is correlated to control perception and motivated behavior. To our knowledge, this is the first study to use neuromodulation to monitor and manipulate the development of helplessness in the laboratory.

Never mind losing the pound still got the penny! The influence of trait greed on risky decision behavior in a mixed and gain only BART.

Risk proneness and the lack of loss aversion are two different reasons to show varying degrees of risk-taking in decision situations. So far, little is known about the extent to which these two processes underly the influence of trait greed, trait anxiety, and age. The present study investigated risk- taking in decision making in these trait contexts using two variants of the Balloon Analogue Risk Task (BART) in an online study: A gain only and a mixed gambling BART. This was done to separate risk proneness from loss aversion. Individuals with high trait greed showed an increased risk decision-making behavior due to an increased risk proneness and not due to a reduced loss aversion. This is partly in contrast with previous findings in other tasks assessing risk proneness and loss aversion. These differences may be caused by the changes of perception during the gain only task. No significant effects were found for trait anxiety or age concerning risk-taking in decision-making behavior. Possible explanations for the lack of influence of these constructs are skewed distributions, omitting pathologically anxious subjects in anxiety and a restricted age range. The findings suggest that a lack of loss aversion is not a driving factor to explain elevated risk-taking in decision-making behavior in persons with high trait greed, but a higher reaction to reward in predominantly rewarding contexts. Supplementary Information: The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s12144-022-03553-6.

Standardizing continuous data classifications in a virtual T-maze using two-layer feedforward networks.

There continues to be difficulties when it comes to replication of studies in the field of Psychology. In part, this may be caused by insufficiently standardized analysis methods that may be subject to state dependent variations in performance. In this work, we show how to easily adapt the two-layer feedforward neural network architecture provided by Huang1 to a behavioral classification problem as well as a physiological classification problem which would not be solvable in a standardized way using classical regression or "simple rule" approaches. In addition, we provide an example for a new research paradigm along with this standardized analysis method. This paradigm as well as the analysis method can be adjusted to any necessary modification or applied to other paradigms or research questions. Hence, we wanted to show that two-layer feedforward neural networks can be used to increase standardization as well as replicability and illustrate this with examples based on a virtual T-maze paradigm2-5 including free virtual movement via joystick and advanced physiological data signal processing.

On second thought the influence of a second stage in the ultimatum game on decision behavior, electro-cortical correlates and their trait interrelation.

Previous EEG research only investigated one stage ultimatum games (UGs). We investigated the influence of a second bargaining stage in an UG concerning behavioral responses, electro-cortical correlates and their moderations by the traits altruism, anger, anxiety, and greed in 92 participants. We found that an additional stage led to more rejection in the 2-stage UG (2SUG) and that increasing offers in the second stage compared to the first stage led to more acceptance. The FRN during a trial was linked to expectance evaluation concerning the fairness of the offers, while midfrontal theta was a marker for the needed cognitive control to overcome the respective default behavioral pattern. The FRN responses to unfair offers were more negative for either low or high altruism in the UG, while high trait anxiety led to more negative FRN responses in the first stage of 2SUG, indicating higher sensitivity to unfairness. Accordingly, the mean FRN response, representing the trait-like general electrocortical reactivity to unfairness, predicted rejection in the first stage of 2SUG. Additionally, we found that high trait anger led to more rejections for unfair offer in 2SUG in general, while trait altruism led to more rejection of unimproving unfair offers in the second stage of 2SUG. In contrast, trait anxiety led to more acceptance in the second stage of 2SUG, while trait greed even led to more acceptance if the offer was worse than in the stage before. These findings suggest, that 2SUG creates a trait activation situation compared to the UG.

Neural correlates of successful costly punishment in the Ultimatum game on a trial-by-trial basis.

Costly punishment describes decisions of an interaction partner to punish an opponent for violating rules of fairness at the expense of personal costs. Here, we extend the interaction process by investigating the impact of a socio-emotional reaction of the opponent in response to the punishment that indicates whether punishment was successful or not. In a modified Ultimatum game, emotional facial expressions of the proposer in response to the decision of the responder served as feedback stimuli. We found that both honored reward following acceptance of an offer (smiling compared to neutral facial expression) and successful punishment (sad compared to neutral facial expression) elicited a reward positivity, indicating that punishment was the intended outcome. By comparing the pattern of results with a probabilistic learning task, we show that the reward positivity on sad facial expressions was specific for the context of costly punishment. Additionally, acceptance rates on a trial-by-trial basis were altered according to P3 amplitudes in response to the emotional facial reaction of the proposer. Our results are in line with the concept of costly punishment as an intentional act following norm-violating behavior. Socio-emotional stimuli have an important influence on the perception and behavior in economic bargaining.

Self-reported mask-related worrying reduces relative avoidance bias toward unmasked faces in individuals with low Covid19 anxiety syndrome.

Facial masks have become and may remain ubiquitous. Though important for preventing infection, they may also serve as a reminder of the risks of disease. Thus, they may either act as cues for threat, priming avoidance-related behavior, or as cues for a safe interaction, priming social approach. To distinguish between these possibilities, we assessed implicit and explicit evaluations of masked individuals as well as avoidance bias toward relatively unsafe interactions with unmasked individuals in an approach-avoidance task in an online study. We further assessed Covid19 anxiety and specific attitudes toward mask-wearing, including mask effectiveness and desirability, hindrance of communication from masks, aesthetic appeal of masks, and mask-related worrying. Across one sample of younger (18-35 years, N = 147) and one of older adults (60+ years, N = 150), we found neither an average approach nor avoidance bias toward mask-wearing compared to unmasked individuals in the indirect behavior measurement task. However, across the combined sample, self-reported mask-related worrying correlated with reduced avoidance tendencies toward unmasked individuals when Covid19 anxiety was low, but not when it was high. This relationship was specific to avoidance tendencies and was not observed in respect to explicit or implicit preference for mask-wearing individuals. We conclude that unsafe interaction styles may be reduced by targeting mask-related worrying with public interventions, in particular for populations that otherwise have low generalized Covid19 anxiety.

EPOS: EEG Processing Open-Source Scripts.

BACKGROUND: Since the replication crisis, standardization has become even more important in psychological science and neuroscience. As a result, many methods are being reconsidered, and researchers' degrees of freedom in these methods are being discussed as a potential source of inconsistencies across studies. NEW METHOD: With the aim of addressing these subjectivity issues, we have been working on a tutorial-like EEG (pre-)processing pipeline to achieve an automated method based on the semi-automated analysis proposed by Delorme and Makeig. RESULTS: Two scripts are presented and explained step-by-step to perform basic, informed ERP and frequency-domain analyses, including data export to statistical programs and visual representations of the data. The open-source software EEGlab in MATLAB is used as the data handling platform, but scripts based on code provided by Mike Cohen (2014) are also included. COMPARISON WITH EXISTING METHODS: This accompanying tutorial-like article explains and shows how the processing of our automated pipeline affects the data and addresses, especially beginners in EEG-analysis, as other (pre)-processing chains are mostly targeting rather informed users in specialized areas or only parts of a complete procedure. In this context, we compared our pipeline with a selection of existing approaches. CONCLUSION: The need for standardization and replication is evident, yet it is equally important to control the plausibility of the suggested solution by data exploration. Here, we provide the community with a tool to enhance the understanding and capability of EEG-analysis. We aim to contribute to comprehensive and reliable analyses for neuro-scientific research.

Methods matter: An examination of factors that moderate predictions of the capability model concerning the relationship of frontal asymmetry to trait measures.

The capability model of anterior asymmetry integrates trait-related and state-related frontal asymmetry research by proposing that frontal asymmetry is dependent on relevant traits if they are activated by a situation. However, differences in experimental design and EEG recording methods haven't been fully explored. We investigated 56 participants under three different situational paradigms (virtual T-maze, mental imagery, movies), varying the stimulus and type of measurement concerning frontal asymmetry. We predicted that "strong" situational manipulations (virtual T-maze, frontal asymmetry measured as event-related desynchronization) would eclipse relationships between frontal asymmetry and relevant traits, whereas "weaker" task manipulations, measured during longer time periods, would enhance relationships to relevant traits compared to frontal asymmetry at rest. The results confirmed these expectations, stressing the importance of stimulus characteristics, trait measures and recording methods with respect to the capability model. Additionally, a revision of the capability model to an inverse U-shaped quadratic relationship might be appropriate.

We, Them, and It: Dictator Game Offers Depend on Hierarchical Social Status, Artificial Intelligence, and Social Dominance.

We investigated the influence of social status on behavior in a modified dictator game (DG). Since the DG contains an inherent dominance gradient, we examined the relationship between dictator decisions and recipient status, which was operationalized by three social identities and an artificial intelligence (AI). Additionally, we examined the predictive value of social dominance orientation (SDO) on the behavior of dictators toward the different social and non-social hierarchical recipients. A multilevel model analysis showed that recipients with the same status as the dictator benefited the most and the artificial intelligence the least. Furthermore, SDO, regardless of social status, predicted behavior toward recipients in such a way that higher dominance was associated with lower dictator offers. In summary, participants treated other persons of higher and lower status equally, those of equal status better and, above all, an algorithm worst. The large proportion of female participants and the limited variance of SDO should be taken into account with regard to the results of individual differences in SDO.

Cardiac defensive reactions and orienting responses correspond to virtual withdrawal behavior choices in a virtual T-maze.

Trait or stimulus valence related differences in heart rate change have often been investigated in psychophysiological research. However, the influence of different behavioral responses during motivational contexts on cardiac response patterns has been neglected so far. In this manuscript, HR change during movement via joystick during the negatively valent motivational condition of a virtual T-maze was investigated in two studies. Concerning the behavior, two specific avoidance response types could be identified in previous studies: a backwards withdrawal and an approach to safety. HR change and skin conductance response were hypothesized to be differentially related to these response patterns. For HR changes, the proposed difference was found. Participants facing the safety zone during their avoidance showed cardiac responses associated with the defensive response. In contrast, participants facing the negative entity of the virtual T-maze during their backwards withdrawal yielded cardiac responses associated with orienting reactions. Interestingly, these differences were found independently of the stimuli used in the two paradigms (monster vs. man). These findings lead to the conclusion that the execution of different behavioral responses during motivational conditions is an important factor in analyzing psychophysiological patterns, because they change according to the executed behavior and the linked visual and motivational properties.

Age-Related Differences in Emoji Evaluation.

BACKGROUND: For decades, the nature of emotions has been at the center of psychological research, particularly regarding the underlying mechanisms that enable people to perceive, recognize, and process emotional stimuli. Research has indicated that there are interindividual differences in the processing of emotions. This includes age, which underlies neurological changes that contribute to the specific processing of emotions. Increasing age seems to be associated with a more positive evaluation of emotional information, from perception itself to attention, memory, and decision-making. METHOD: The current study aimed to investigate whether these differences can be found in highly artificial emotional faces. Since emojis are representatives of emotional faces in digital communication, we selected a subset of 13 emojis and asked 170 participants to evaluate them for their ability to represent different target emotions. RESULTS: An exploratory factor analysis revealed a two-factorial structure with positive and negative valence for most of the ratings for the evaluated emojis. Furthermore, a multilevel model analysis based on the individual factor scores indicated higher age to be associated with an increase in factor scores for negative valence compared to positive valence. CONCLUSION: In the present study, a trend for an age-specific positivity bias could only be shown in the classical smiley, while other emojis were related to negative valence with increasing age. Thus, we revealed age-related differences in emotion classification, even for highly artificial stimuli such as emojis.

It's costly punishment, not altruistic: Low midfrontal theta and state anger predict punishment.

Punishment in economic games has been interpreted as "altruistic." However, it was shown that punishment is related to trait anger instead of trait altruism in a third-party dictator game if compensation is also available. Here, we investigated the influence of state anger on punishment and compensation in the third-party dictator game. Therefore, we used movie sequences for emotional priming, including the target states anger, happy, and neutral. We measured the Feedback-Related Negativity (FRN) and midfrontal theta band activation, to investigate an electro-cortical correlate of the processing of fair and unfair offers. Also, we assessed single-trial FRN and midfrontal theta band activation as a predictor for punishment and compensation. We found that punishment was linked to state anger. Midfrontal theta band activation, which has previously been linked to altruistic acts and cognitive control, predicted less punishment. Additionally, trait anger led to enhanced FRN for unfair offers. This led to the interpretation that the FRN depicts the evaluation of fairness, while midfrontal theta band activation captures an aspect of cognitive control and altruistic motivation. We conclude that we need to redefine "altruistic punishment" into "costly punishment," as no direct link of altruism and punishment is given. Additionally, midfrontal theta band activation complements the FRN and offers additional insights into complex responses and decision processes, especially as a single trial predictor.

Do emojis influence social interactions? Neural and behavioral responses to affective emojis in bargaining situations.

Emojis are nowadays a common substitute for real facial expressions to integrate emotions in social interaction. In certain contexts, emojis possibly could also transport information beyond emotions, reflecting interindividual differences or social aspects. In this study, we investigated the influence of emojis as socioemotional feedback stimuli on behavior and neural responses in a social decision game. We modified the Ultimatum Game by including emotional feedback provided by the proposer as response to the decision of the participant as receiver. Therefore, we generated identities that differed in their feedback behavior to identify differences in the processing of emotional feedback in a positive (acceptance) versus negative (rejection) frame. Regarding offer sizes, we replicated the valence effect of feedback-related negativity for small offer sizes evoking more negative brain potentials compared to larger ones. Further, we found an effect of affective emojis on distinct ERPs: A face-detecting neural component (N170) was examined to be a part of the processing of emojis, which resulted in significantly more negative amplitudes in response to a sad-looking emoji compared to smiling and neutral ones. Furthermore, P3 amplitudes indicate transmission effects from the feedback emoticons to the neural processing of different offer sizes. In contrast to previous findings, P3 responses of our subjects did not depend on the offer size, but rather by which kind of partner they were made. Since some evaluative processes did not reveal any effects, emojis seem to be less effective than real facial expressions, which convey more information that is socially meaningful.