Phenotypic traits of individuals in a long-term colony of Anopheles (Nyssorhynchus) aquasalis (Diptera: Culicidae) show variable susceptibility to Plasmodium and suggest cryptic speciation.

Anopheles aquasalis is an important malaria vector in coastal regions of South America and islands of the Caribbean. In its original description, the species was divided into two varieties, based on the scaling patterns of their hind-tarsomere 2. Specimens from our 25-year established colony, used for Plasmodium experimental infections, still exhibit both scaling tarsomere patterns. This study examined the DNA sequence of the nuclear Internal Transcribed Spacer 2 (ITS2) and susceptibility to Plasmodium, looking for differences among the phenotypes 30BS and 50BS. One hundred mosquitoes, 25 males and 25 females of each sex, and phenotype were analyzed. Twenty-seven novel haplotypes were identified. Three were found in both phenotypes (30BS and 50BS) regardless of gender. Among the other 27 genotypes, we observed a male-oriented bias in both phenotypic categories. Evaluation of Plasmodium yoelii N67 infections, based on oocyst counts, showed a higher susceptibility of 30BS compared with 50BS. Future studies need to be conducted to evaluate if these genotype assortments among the phenotypic groups reflect differences in fitness, mating, and their susceptibility to infection by Plasmodium parasites.

Brazilian Aedes aegypti as a Competent Vector for Multiple Complex Arboviral Coinfections.

BACKGROUND: Aedes aegypti is a highly competent vector in the transmission of arboviruses, such as chikungunya, dengue, Zika, and yellow fever viruses, and causes single and coinfections in the populations of tropical countries. METHODS: The infection rate, viral abundance (VA), vector competence (VC), disseminated infection, and survival rate were recorded after single and multiple infections of the vector with 15 combinations of chikungunya, dengue, Zika, and yellow fever arboviruses. RESULTS: Infection rates were 100% in all single and multiple infection experiments, except in 1 triple coinfection that presented a rate of 50%. The VC and disseminated infection rate varied from 100% (in single and quadruple infections) to 40% (in dual and triple infections). The dual and triple coinfections altered the VC and/or VA of ≥1 arbovirus. The highest viral VAs were detected for a single infection with chikungunya. The VAs in quadruple infections were similar when compared with each respective single infection. A decrease in survival rates was observed in a few combinations. CONCLUSIONS: A. aegypti was able to host all single and multiple arboviral coinfections. The interference of the chikungunya virus suggests that distinct arbovirus families may have a significant role in complex coinfections.

Vertical Transmission of Zika Virus (Flaviviridae, Flavivirus) in Amazonian Aedes aegypti (Diptera: Culicidae) Delays Egg Hatching and Larval Development of Progeny.

Zika virus (ZIKV) has emerged as a globally important arbovirus and has been reported from all states of Brazil. The virus is primarily transmitted to humans through the bite of an infective Aedes aegypti (Linnaeus, 1762) or Aedes albopictus (Skuse, 1895). However, it is important to know if ZIKV transmission also occurs from Ae. aegypti through infected eggs to her offspring. Therefore, a ZIKV and dengue virus (DENV) free colony was established from eggs collected in Manaus and maintained until the third-fourth generation in order to conduct ZIKV vertical transmission (VT) experiments which used an infectious bloodmeal as the route of virus exposure. The eggs from ZIKV-infected females were allowed to hatch. The resulting F1 progeny (larvae, pupae, and adults) were quantitative polymerase chain reaction (qPCR) assayed for ZIKV. The viability of ZIKV vertically transmitted to F1 progeny was evaluated by cultivation in C6/36 cells. The effects of ZIKV on immature development of Ae. aegypti was assessed and compared with noninfected mosquitoes. AmazonianAe. aegypti were highly susceptible to ZIKV infection (96.7%), and viable virus passed to their progeny via VT. Moreover, eggs from the ZIKV-infected mosquitoes had a significantly lower hatch rate and the slowest hatching. In addition, the larval development period was slower when compared to noninfected, control mosquitoes. This is the first study to illustrate VT initiated by oral infection of the parental population by using mosquitoes, which originated from the field and a ZIKV strain that is naturally circulating in-country. Additionally, this study suggests that ZIKV present in the Ae. aegypti can modify the mosquito life cycle. The data reported here suggest that VT of ZIKV to progeny from naturally infected females may have a critical epidemiological role in the dissemination and maintenance of the virus circulating in the vector.

Coinfection with Zika Virus (ZIKV) and Dengue Virus Results in Preferential ZIKV Transmission by Vector Bite to Vertebrate Host.

Background: Several tropical cities are permissive to Aedes aegypti and dengue virus (DENV) endemicity and have allowed for invasion and circulation of Zika virus (ZIKV) in the same areas. People living in arbovirus-endemic regions have been simultaneously infected with ≥2 arboviruses. Methods: A. aegypti mosquitoes from Manaus, the capital city of Amazonas State in Brazil, were coinfected with circulating strains of DENV and ZIKV. The coinfected vectors were allowed to bite BALB/c mice. Results: A. aegypti from Manaus is highly permissive to monoinfection and coinfection with DENV and ZIKV and is capable of cotransmitting both pathogens by bite. Coinfection strongly influences vector competence, favoring transmission of ZIKV to the vertebrate host. Conclusions: This finding suggests that A. aegypti is an efficient vector of ZIKV and that ZIKV would be preferentially transmitted by coinfected A. aegypti. Coinfection in the vector population should be considered a new critical epidemiological factor and may represent a major public health challenge.

Zika virus transmission to mouse ear by mosquito bite: a laboratory model that replicates the natural transmission process.

BACKGROUND: Zika disease has transformed into a serious global health problem due to the rapid spread of the arbovirus and alarming severity including congenital complications, microcephaly and Guillain-Barré syndrome. Zika virus (ZIKV) is primarily transmitted to humans through the bite of an infective mosquito, with Aedes aegypti being the main vector. METHODS: We successfully developed a ZIKV experimental transmission model by single infectious Ae. aegypti bite to a laboratory mouse using circulating Brazilian strains of both arbovirus and vector. Mosquitoes were orally infected and single Ae. aegypti were allowed to feed on mouse ears 14 days post-infection. Additionally, salivary gland (SG) homogenates from infected mosquitoes were intrathoracically inoculated into naïve Ae. aegypti. Mosquito and mouse tissue samples were cultured in C6/36 cells and processed by quantitative real-time PCR. RESULTS: A total of 26 Ae. aegypti were allowed to feed individually on mouse ears. Of these, 17 mosquitoes fed, all to full engorgement. The transmission rate of ZIKV by bite from these engorged mosquitoes to mouse ears was 100%. The amount of virus inoculated into the ears by bites ranged from 2 × 102-2.1 × 1010 ZIKV cDNA copies and was positively correlated with ZIKV cDNA quantified from SGs dissected from mosquitoes post-feeding. Replicating ZIKV was confirmed in macerated SGs (2.45 × 107 cDNA copies), mouse ear tissue (1.15 × 103 cDNA copies, and mosquitoes 14 days post-intrathoracic inoculation (1.49 × 107 cDNA copies) by cytopathic effect in C6/36 cell culture and qPCR. CONCLUSIONS: Our model illustrates successful transmission of ZIKV by an infectious mosquito bite to a live vertebrate host. This approach offers a comprehensive tool for evaluating the development of infection in and transmission from mosquitoes, and the vertebrate-ZIKV interaction and progression of infection following a natural transmission process.

An overview of malaria transmission from the perspective of Amazon Anopheles vectors.

In the Americas, areas with a high risk of malaria transmission are mainly located in the Amazon Forest, which extends across nine countries. One keystone step to understanding the Plasmodium life cycle in Anopheles species from the Amazon Region is to obtain experimentally infected mosquito vectors. Several attempts to colonise Anopheles species have been conducted, but with only short-lived success or no success at all. In this review, we review the literature on malaria transmission from the perspective of its Amazon vectors. Currently, it is possible to develop experimental Plasmodium vivax infection of the colonised and field-captured vectors in laboratories located close to Amazonian endemic areas. We are also reviewing studies related to the immune response to P. vivax infection of Anopheles aquasalis, a coastal mosquito species. Finally, we discuss the importance of the modulation of Plasmodium infection by the vector microbiota and also consider the anopheline genomes. The establishment of experimental mosquito infections with Plasmodium falciparum, Plasmodium yoelii and Plasmodium berghei parasites that could provide interesting models for studying malaria in the Amazonian scenario is important. Understanding the molecular mechanisms involved in the development of the parasites in New World vectors is crucial in order to better determine the interaction process and vectorial competence.

An overview of malaria transmission from the perspective of Amazon Anopheles vectors

In the Americas, areas with a high risk of malaria transmission are mainly located in the Amazon Forest, which extends across nine countries. One keystone step to understanding the Plasmodium life cycle in Anopheles species from the Amazon Region is to obtain experimentally infected mosquito vectors. Several attempts to colonise Ano- pheles species have been conducted, but with only short-lived success or no success at all. In this review, we review the literature on malaria transmission from the perspective of its Amazon vectors. Currently, it is possible to develop experimental Plasmodium vivax infection of the colonised and field-captured vectors in laboratories located close to Amazonian endemic areas. We are also reviewing studies related to the immune response to P. vivax infection of Anopheles aquasalis, a coastal mosquito species. Finally, we discuss the importance of the modulation of Plasmodium infection by the vector microbiota and also consider the anopheline genomes. The establishment of experimental mosquito infections with Plasmodium falciparum, Plasmodium yoelii and Plasmodium berghei parasites that could provide interesting models for studying malaria in the Amazonian scenario is important. Understanding the molecular mechanisms involved in the development of the parasites in New World vectors is crucial in order to better determine the interaction process and vectorial competence.

Wolbachia detection in insects through LAMP: loop mediated isothermal amplification.

BACKGROUND: The bacterium Wolbachia is a promising agent for the biological control of vector-borne diseases as some strains have the ability to block the transmission of key human disease-causing pathogens. Fast, accurate and inexpensive methods of differentiating between infected and uninfected insects will be of critical importance as field-based trials of Wolbachia-based bio-control become increasingly common. FINDINGS: We have developed a specific and sensitive method of detecting Wolbachia based on the isothermal DNA amplification. This technique can be performed in an ordinary heat block without the need for gel-based visualisation, and is effective for a wide variety of insect hosts. CONCLUSION: Here we present the development of a rapid, highly sensitive and inexpensive method to detect Wolbachia in a variety of insect hosts, including key mosquito disease vectors.

Diagnostic accuracy and applicability of a PCR system for the detection of Schistosoma mansoni DNA in human urine samples from an endemic area.

Schistosomiasis caused by Schistosoma mansoni, one of the most neglected human parasitoses in Latin America and Africa, is routinely confirmed by microscopic visualization of eggs in stool. The main limitation of this diagnostic approach is its lack of sensitivity in detecting individual low worm burdens and consequently data on infection rates in low transmission settings are little reliable. According to the scientific literature, PCR assays are characterized by high sensitivity and specificity in detecting parasite DNA in biological samples. A simple and cost effective extraction method for DNA of Schistosoma mansoni from urine samples in combination with a conventional PCR assay was developed and applied in an endemic area. This urine based PCR system was tested for diagnostic accuracy among a population of a small village in an endemic area, comparing it to a reference test composed of three different parasitological techniques. The diagnostic parameters revealed a sensitivity of 100%, a specificity of 91.20%, positive and negative predictive values of 86.25% and 100%, respectively, and a test accuracy of 94.33%. Further statistical analysis showed a k index of 0.8806, indicating an excellent agreement between the reference test and the PCR system. Data obtained from the mouse model indicate the infection can be detected one week after cercariae penetration, opening a new perspective for early detection and patient management during this stage of the disease. The data indicate that this innovative PCR system provides a simple to handle and robust diagnostic tool for the detection of S. mansoni DNA from urine samples and a promising approach to overcome the diagnostic obstacles in low transmission settings. Furthermore the principals of this molecular technique, based on the examination of human urine samples may be useful for the diagnosis of other neglected tropical diseases that can be detected by trans-renal DNA.

Caracterização genética de populações de campo de Schistosoma mansoni com o uso de microssatélites / Genetic characterization of field populations of Schistosoma mansoni by using microsatellite

Apresentamos a utilização de 4 bibliotecas genômicas enriquecidas, como fonte de microssatélites, para o estudo da estrutura genética de populações de Schistosoma mansoni. De 382 seqüências obtidas, 250 (65,4%) apresentaram loci de microssatélites. Onze destes loci foram polimórficos quando testados em 100 vermes, com 2 a 19 alelos por loci. A heterozigosidade esperada (He) foi de 0,79 e a observada (Ho) de 0,59. Apresentamos ainda um locus de minissatélites, com uma porção interna variável composta por um microssatélite “CA”. Este minissatélite e outros 3 loci de microssatélites, anteriormente descritos, mostraram sucesso na diferenciação de cepas de S. mansoni e de 9 diferentes espécies do gênero Schistosoma. Apresentamos também, a utilização de ovos individualizados de S. mansoni como fonte de DNA para PCR, um novo protocolo, que utiliza resina de troca iônica, para extração do DNA e a utilização de PCR-multiplex na genotipagem de ovos e vermes adultos de S. mansoni. O número de alelos por locus não diferiu entre ovos e vermes e observamos ainda uma redução no número de genótipos homozigotos nos vermes, em relação aos ovos. Tanto os ovos quanto os vermes utilizados foram provenientes das amostras de fezes coletadas de moradores da área endêmica de Virgem das Graças – Minas Gerais. Analisamos ainda, entre 10 e 22 ovos, de outras 53 populações de parasitos, da mesma área, para a determinação de sua variabilidade genética.

Para se testar uma possível estruturação geográfica destas populações, estas foram divididas em 5 grupos, de acordo com sua origem geográfica dentro do município. Destas populações, 33 foram coletadas de amostras de fezes pré-tratamento e 20, pós-tratamento quimioterápico. Nove populações coletados antes e depois do tratamento foram comparadas para o estudo da influência da quimioterapia sobre variabilidade genética. Foram utilizados nestas análises 5 loci de microssatélites por apresentarem resultados consistentes com DNA de ovos e em PCR-multiplex. Entre as 53 populações observamos que o número de alelos por locus variou de 2 a 13 e não houve correlação entre variações no número de alelos por locus e o tratamento. A heterozigozidade observada variou de 0,0 a 1,0. Com exceção de 13 populações, Ho foi sempre menor que He. Em 39 das 53 populações, em pelo menos um locus, Ho foi significativamente diferente de He (p<0,05) representando desvios do equilíbrio de Hardy-Weinberg. Não se observou nenhum tipo de estruturação geográfica destas populações quando comparadas par a par, em uma ou ambas as coletas, ou quando comparadas pré e pós-tratamento quimioterápico. Este trabalho abre perspectivas promissoras no estudo e no entendimento de vários mecanismos biológicos envolvidos nas interações parasito-hospedeiro, na patogenia e epidemiologia e até numa futura quimioterapia da esquistossomose, doença que ainda hoje afeta, de maneira séria, e em certos casos, fatal, cerca de 200 milhões de pessoas em mais de 70 paises.

Caracterização genética de populações de campo de Schistosoma mansoni com o uso de microssatélites

Apresentamos a utilização de 4 bibliotecas genômicas enriquecidas, como fonte de microssatélites, para o estudo da estrutura genética de populações de Schistosoma mansoni. De 382 seqüências obtidas, 250 (65,4%) apresentaram loci de microssatélites. Onze destes loci foram polimórficos quando testados em 100 vermes, com 2 a 19 alelos por loci. A heterozigosidade esperada (He) foi de 0,79 e a observada (Ho) de 0,59. Apresentamos ainda um locus de minissatélites, com uma porção interna variável composta por um microssatélite “CA”. Este minissatélite e outros 3 loci de microssatélites, anteriormente descritos, mostraram sucesso na diferenciação de cepas de S. mansoni e de 9 diferentes espécies do gênero Schistosoma. Apresentamos também, a utilização de ovos individualizados de S. mansoni como fonte de DNA para PCR, um novo protocolo, que utiliza resina de troca iônica, para extração do DNA e a utilização de PCR-multiplex na genotipagem de ovos e vermes adultos de S. mansoni. O número de alelos por locus não diferiu entre ovos e vermes e observamos ainda uma redução no número de genótipos homozigotos nos vermes, em relação aos ovos. Tanto os ovos quanto os vermes utilizados foram provenientes das amostras de fezes coletadas de moradores da área endêmica de Virgem das Graças – Minas Gerais. Analisamos ainda, entre 10 e 22 ovos, de outras 53 populações de parasitos, da mesma área, para a determinação de sua variabilidade genética.

Para se testar uma possível estruturação geográfica destas populações, estas foram divididas em 5 grupos, de acordo com sua origem geográfica dentro do município. Destas populações, 33 foram coletadas de amostras de fezes pré-tratamento e 20, pós-tratamento quimioterápico. Nove populações coletados antes e depois do tratamento foram comparadas para o estudo da influência da quimioterapia sobre variabilidade genética. Foram utilizados nestas análises 5 loci de microssatélites por apresentarem resultados consistentes com DNA de ovos e em PCR-multiplex. Entre as 53 populações observamos que o número de alelos por locus variou de 2 a 13 e não houve correlação entre variações no número de alelos por locus e o tratamento. A heterozigozidade observada variou de 0,0 a 1,0. Com exceção de 13 populações, Ho foi sempre menor que He. Em 39 das 53 populações, em pelo menos um locus, Ho foi significativamente diferente de He (p<0,05) representando desvios do equilíbrio de Hardy-Weinberg. Não se observou nenhum tipo de estruturação geográfica destas populações quando comparadas par a par, em uma ou ambas as coletas, ou quando comparadas pré e pós-tratamento quimioterápico. Este trabalho abre perspectivas promissoras no estudo e no entendimento de vários mecanismos biológicos envolvidos nas interações parasito-hospedeiro, na patogenia e epidemiologia e até numa futura quimioterapia da esquistossomose, doença que ainda hoje afeta, de maneira séria, e em certos casos, fatal, cerca de 200 milhões de pessoas em mais de 70 paises.