Chronic pain in pediatric patients: epidemiology, pathophysiology, and mitigation strategies.

PURPOSE OF REVIEW: To provide an updated summary on the epidemiology, pathophysiology, and treatment strategies of chronic pain in pediatric patients and its differences with chronic pain in adults. RECENT FINDINGS: Chronic pain in children is common, can be debilitating and can progress into adulthood, thus it requires an interdisciplinary evaluation and management. Targeting interdisciplinary care, including psychology, physical, and/or occupational therapy, has been shown to improve pain and function. Recent decline in mental health post pandemic has correlated with increase in pediatric chronic pain thus the need to identify patients at risk and offer early interdisciplinary treatment. SUMMARY: Chronic pediatric pain should be addressed under the biopsychosocial model, where the biological, psychological, and social factors are evaluated on how they influence the pain perception, pain experience, functional ability, and treatment focus. Pain education to patients and their families is the crucial initial step towards a functional rehabilitation of pain.

Matched Pairs Comparison of an Enhanced Recovery Pathway Versus Conventional Management on Opioid Exposure and Pain Control in Patients Undergoing Lung Surgery.

OBJECTIVE: The aim of this study was to assess the effect of an enhanced recovery after surgery (ERAS) pathway on pain and opioid use following lung resection. SUMMARY BACKGROUND DATA: A major component ERAS pathways is opioid-sparing analgesia; however, the effect on postoperative pain and opioid use in patients undergoing lung resection is unknown. METHODS: Following implementation of an ERAS pathway for lung resection, 123 consecutive patients were identified. Patients were propensity-matched 1:1 with a group of consecutive patients (n = 907) undergoing lung resection before ERAS. Differences regarding in-hospital opioid consumption, discharge prescribing of opioids, and postoperative pain scores were examined. Morphine milligram equivalents were separately calculated including and excluding tramadol as an opioid medication. RESULTS: There were no significant differences between matched patients regarding age, sex, performance status, receipt of preoperative treatment, extent of lung resection, or operative approach. Epidural analgesia was used in 66% of controls and in none of the ERAS group (P < 0.001). The number of adjunct analgesics used postoperatively was greater in the ERAS group (median 3 vs 2, P < 0.001). There was a major reduction in morphine milligram equivalents in the ERAS group whether tramadol was included (median 14.2 vs 57.8, P < 0.001) or excluded (median 2.7 vs 57.8, P < 0.001) and regardless of surgical approach. Average daily pain scores were lower in the ERAS group (median 1.3 vs 1.8, P = 0.004); however, this difference was present only among patients undergoing thoracotomy. The proportion of patients who were prescribed discharge opioids varied whether tramadol was included (96% each group, P = 1.00) or excluded (39% vs 80%, P < 0.001) in the analysis. CONCLUSIONS: Implementation of an ERAS pathway was associated with effective post-operative analgesia, major reductions in in-hospital consumption of opioids, and reduced pain, compared to conventional management.

Impact of implementation of an enhanced recovery program in gynecologic surgery on healthcare costs.

BACKGROUND: Enhanced recovery programs have been associated with improved outcomes after gynecologic surgery. There are limited data on the effect of enhanced recovery programs on healthcare costs or healthcare service use. OBJECTIVE: The purpose of this study was to evaluate differences in hospital charges for women who undergo surgery for a suspected gynecologic cancer that is managed in an enhanced recovery program as compared with conventional perioperative care. STUDY DESIGN: We performed a retrospective cohort study of women who underwent open abdominal surgery for a suspected gynecologic cancer before and after the implementation of an enhanced recovery after surgery program. Consecutive patients from May to October 2014 and from November 2014 to November 2015 comprised the conventional perioperative care (before enhanced recovery after surgery) and enhanced recovery after surgery cohorts, respectively. Patients were excluded if they underwent surgery with a multidisciplinary surgical team or minimally invasive surgery. All technical and professional charges were ascertained for all healthcare services from the day of surgery until postoperative day 30. Charges for adjuvant treatment were excluded. Charges were classified according to the type of clinical service provided. The primary outcome was the difference in total hospital charges between the pre-enhanced recovery after surgery and the enhanced recovery after surgery groups. Secondary outcomes were between group differences in hospital charges within clinical service categories. RESULTS: A total of 271 patients were included in the analysis (58 patients in the pre-enhanced recovery after surgery and 213 patients in the enhanced recovery after surgery cohort). A total of 70,177 technical charges and 6775 professional charges were identified and classified. The median hospital charge for a patient decreased 15.6% in the enhanced recovery after surgery group compared with the pre-enhanced recovery after surgery group (95% confidence interval, 5-24.5%; P=.008). Patients in the enhanced recovery after surgery group also had lower charges for laboratory services (20% lower; 95% confidence interval, 0--39%; P=.04), pharmacy services (30% lower; 95% confidence interval, 14--41%; P<.001), room and board (25% lower; 95% confidence interval, 20--47%; P=.005), and material goods (64% lower; 95% confidence interval, 44--81%; P<.001). No differences in charges were observed for perioperative services, diagnostic procedures, emergency department care, transfusion-related services, interventional radiology procedures, physical/occupational therapy, outpatient care, or other services. CONCLUSION: Hospital charges and healthcare service use were lower for enhanced recovery patients compared with patients who received conventional perioperative care after open surgery for a suspected gynecologic cancer. Enhanced recovery programs may be considered to be high value in healthcare because they provide improved outcomes while lowering resource use.

Impact of compliance with an enhanced recovery after surgery pathway on patient outcomes in open gynecologic surgery.

OBJECTIVE: The aim of this study was to evaluate if varying levels of compliance with an enhanced recovery after surgery (ERAS) protocol impacted post-operative outcomes (length of stay, complications, readmissions, and re-operations) in gynecologic surgery at a tertiary center. METHODS: We included 584 patients who had open gynecologic surgery between November 1, 2014 and December 31, 2016. Patients were categorized into subgroups according to their date of surgery from the time of the ERAS protocol implementation. Patients were categorized by their per cent compliance into two groups:<80% versus ≥80%. We analyzed compliance with the elements of the protocol over time and its relation with post-operative outcomes, length of stay, post-operative complications, readmission, and re-operations rates. We modeled the probability of having a post-operative complication within 30 days of surgery as a function of overall compliance. RESULTS: Overall compliance was 72.3%. Patients with compliance ≥80% had significantly less complications (P<0.001) and shorter length of stay (P<0.001). Readmission and re-operation rates were not impacted by compliance (P=0.182, P=0.078, respectively). Avoidance of salt water overload, early mobilization, early oral nutrition, and early removal of Foley catheter were significantly associated with less post-operative complications within 30 days. CONCLUSIONS: Compliance with an ERAS pathway exceeding 80% was associated with lower complication rates and shorter length of stay without impacting on re-operations or readmissions.

Enhanced Recovery in Bariatric Surgery: A Study of Short-Term Outcomes and Compliance.

INTRODUCTION: The implementation of Enhanced Recovery After Surgery (ERAS) guidelines has been widely studied among various surgical specialties. We aimed at comparing the perioperative outcomes and compliance with ERAS protocol in bariatric surgery at our center. METHODS: An observational review of a prospectively maintained database was performed. Patients who underwent primary bariatric surgery (gastric bypass or sleeve gastrectomy) between January 2011 and June 2018 were included. Patients were divided into pre- and post-ERAS groups. Data including basic demographic information, length of hospital stay, 30-day perioperative complications, and readmission rates were collected. Compliance with elements of ERAS was assessed using a combination of chart review and a prospectively implemented checklist. P < 0.05 was chosen to be statistically significant. RESULTS: A total of 435 patients were included: 239 patients in the pre-ERAS group and 196 patients in the post-ERAS group. There were no statistical differences in baseline demographics and major comorbidities between the 2 groups. The post-ERAS group had shorter length of hospital stay (2.23 vs 1.23, p < 0.001) and lower rates of 30-day postoperative morbidity (8.7 vs 4%, p = .04). There was no significant difference between the 2 groups with respect to readmissions rates. There was no mortality in either group. Overall compliance rates with ERAS elements were 85%; compliance increased significantly with the implementation of a checklist (p < 0.001). CONCLUSIONS: Implementation of ERAS program for bariatric surgery is safe and feasible. It reduces hospital stay and postoperative morbidity. Easy to implement strategies such as checklists should be encouraged in bariatric programs to aid in implementation and compliance with ERAS elements for perioperative care.

Implementation of an Enhanced Recovery After Spine Surgery program at a large cancer center: a preliminary analysis.

This study describes the implementation of a multimodal, multidisciplinary, evidence-based ERAS program in oncologic spine surgery, identifies and measures several relevant postoperative recovery outcomes, and demonstrates the feasibility and potential benefit of the program in improving analgesia and decreasing opioid consumption. The study underscores the importance of defining and capturing meaningful, patient-specific, and patient-reported outcomes, and constant evaluation and monitoring of a group's compliance with the program. The study represents the steppingstone for evaluation and improvement of a young ERAS program for spine surgery and serves as a roadmap for further initiatives and larger-scale studies.

Systolic anterior motion of the mitral valve-the mechanism of postural hypotension following left intrapericardial pneumonectomy.

Systolic anterior motion (SAM) is defined as displacement of the distal portion of the anterior leaflet of the mitral valve toward the left ventricular outflow tract obstruction. SAM can occur in patients without hypertrophic cardiomyopathy (HOCM) and is a well-recognized cause for unexplained sudden hypotension in perioperative settings. We present a case of persistent orthostatic hypotension caused by SAM following left intrapericardial pneumonectomy and mediastinal lymph node dissection for squamous cell carcinoma of the lung invading intrapericardial portion of the inferior pulmonary vein. Diagnosis of SAM was possible with the use of transesophageal echocardiography (TEE).

Metastatic Testicular Cancer to Left Atrium via the Left Inferior Pulmonary Vein: A Case Report.

Testicular cancer is one of the most common cancers diagnosed in young men. Frequent sites of metastasis include the retroperitoneum, lungs, liver, brain, and bone. Intra-cardiac metastasis has also been described. An 18-year-old boy with a history of mixed testicular germ cell tumor presented to our institution for surgical resection of his metastatic disease. Intraoperative transesophageal echocardiography during his surgery confirmed a tumor thrombus into the left atrium coming from the left pulmonary vein. We report a case of metastatic testicular cancer with rare tumor extension from the left inferior pulmonary vein into the left atrium. Perioperative transesophageal echocardiography was necessary to aid intraoperative diagnosis and confirmation of the intracardiac tumor, providing data to guide surgical strategy.

Identification of Risk Factors Associated With Postoperative Acute Kidney Injury After Esophagectomy for Esophageal Cancer.

OBJECTIVE: To identify risks factors associated with acute kidney injury (AKI) after esophageal cancer surgery. DESIGN: This was a retrospective study. SETTING: Single academic center. PARTICIPANTS: Subjects with non-metastatic esophageal cancer. Patients were excluded if they were younger than 18 years and had missing data. MEASUREMENTS AND MAIN RESULTS: Primary outcome of the study was AKI according to AKI Network criteria. Demographic and perioperative variables were compared in patients with and without AKI. A multivariate Cox proportional model was used to assess the association between perioperative variables and AKI; p<0.05 was considered statistically significant. AKI was found in 107 (11.9%) of the 898 patients included in the study. The multivariate analysis also showed that BMI (odds ratio [OR] 1.07, 95% confidence interval [CI] 1.03-1.11), number of comorbidities (OR 1.52, 95% CI 1.20-1.93, p = 0.001), and preoperative creatinine concentrations (OR 2.37, 95% CI 1.14-4.92, p = 0.02) were independent predictors for AKI. The use of dexamethasone was associated with a reduced risk for AKI. CONCLUSIONS: In support of previous reports in the literature, the authors found that AKI was not an uncommon complication after esophageal surgery. Obesity, cardiovascular comorbidities, and high preoperative concentrations were predictors of AKI. Dexamethasone administration during surgery appeared to have a protective effect. This finding opens an opportunity to further study in a randomized controlled trial the efficacy of dexamethasone in the prevention of AKI.

The Impact of Paravertebral Block Analgesia on Breast Cancer Survival After Surgery.

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES: The impact of regional anesthesia on breast cancer recurrence is controversial. We tested the hypothesis that the use of paravertebral block (PVB) analgesia during breast cancer surgery prolongs the recurrence-free survival (RFS) and overall survival (OS) of women with breast cancer. METHODS: Seven hundred ninety-two women with nonmetastatic breast cancer were included in this retrospective study. Patients were divided based on the administration of PVB analgesia for mastectomy surgeries. One hundred ninety-eight (25%) were given a PVB, the remainder were treated with opioid-based analgesia. Propensity score matching was developed using several variables. Univariate and multivariate analyses were used to assess the impact of PVB analgesia on RFS and OS. RESULTS: The median follow-up times for RFS and OS were 5.8 and 6 years, respectively. In the propensity score matching model, a total of 396 women were included in each group of treatment (non-PVB group, n = 198 vs PVB group, n = 198). As expected, the fentanyl consumption was significantly lower in PVB (122.8 ± 77.85 µg) patients than non-PVB subjects (402.23 ± 343.8 µg). Other variables were not statistically significant. After adjusting for several important covariates, the analysis indicated that the use of PVB is not associated with a significant change in RFS [1.60 (0.81-3.16), P = 0.172] or OS [1.28 (0.55-3.01)] survival. DISCUSSION: This retrospective study does not support the hypothesis that the use of regional analgesia is associated with longer survival after surgery for breast cancer.

Lack of Association Between Dexamethasone and Long-Term Survival After Non-Small Cell Lung Cancer Surgery.

OBJECTIVE: To evaluate the association between the use of intraoperative dexamethasone with an increase in recurrence-free survival (RFS) and overall survival (OS) after non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC) surgery. DESIGN: This was a propensity score-matched (PSM) retrospective study. SETTING: Single academic center. PARTICIPANTS: The study comprised patients with stage I through IIIa NSCLC. Patients were excluded if they were younger than 18 years, had missing data, and died within 30 days after surgery. MEASUREMENTS AND MAIN RESULTS: Primary outcomes of the study were RFS and OS. The data were PSM. RFS and OS were evaluated using univariate and multivariate Cox proportional hazards models after PSM to assess the association between intraoperative dexamethasone use and the primary outcomes. A p value of<0.05 was considered statistically significant. After PSM, 436 patients were included in each treatment group. Adjusting for significant covariates, the multivariate analysis demonstrated no association between the use of dexamethasone and RFS (hazard ratio [95% confidence interval]: 0.98 [0.78-1.24]; p = 0.915). The multivariate analysis also demonstrated no association between the administration of dexamethasone and OS (hazard ratio [95% confidence interval]: 1.08 [0.81-1.44]; p = 0.58). CONCLUSIONS: This study demonstrated that intraoperative dexamethasone administration to NSCLC patients was not associated with a significant impact on RFS and OS. The results were similar to a previous study on ovarian cancer patients. A randomized controlled study should be conducted to confirm the results of this study.

Preoperative anemia, blood transfusion, and neutrophil-to-lymphocyte ratio in patients with stage i non-small cell lung cancer.

Perioperative and postoperative blood transfusions (BT), anemia and inflammation are associated with poor survivals in patients with non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC). This study investigated the impact of perioperative BT on the survival of patients with NSCLC taking into account their preoperative inflammatory status and the presence of anemia. Demographic, perioperative, and survival data for 861 patients with stage I NSCLC was collected retrospectively. The primary endpoints of interest were recurrence-free (RFS) and overall survival (OS). Before and after propensity score matching, univariate and multivariable Cox proportional hazards models were used to evaluate the association between covariates and survival. A neutrophil-to-lymphocyte ratio (NLR) < 5 (hazard ratio [HR]: 0.58, 95% CI: 0.38-0.87; p = 0.009) and normal Hb concentration (HR: 0.72, 95% CI: 0.72; p = 0.022) were independently associated with longer RFS. The administration of blood perioperatively was associated with a trend towards worse RFS (HR: 0.69, 95% CI: 0.47-1.02; p = 0.066). The multivariate analysis also revealed that an NLR < 5 (HR: 0.48, 95% CI: 0.3-0.76; p = 0.001) and the absence of BT (HR: 0.63, 95% CI: 0.4-0.98; p = 0.04) were significantly associated with lower mortality risk. The propensity score matching analysis did not confirm the association between BT and poor RFS (HR: 0.63, 95% CI: 0.35-1.1; p = 0.108) and OS (HR: 0.52, 95% CI: 0.26-1.04; p = 0.06). Inflammation and anemia are common finding in patients with stage 1 NSCLC. After adjusting for these two important confounders, this study confirms that previous reports demonstrating an association between BT and poor survival after NSCLC surgery.

Posterior Intercostal Nerve Block With Liposomal Bupivacaine: An Alternative to Thoracic Epidural Analgesia.

BACKGROUND: Pain relief using regional neuroaxial blockade is standard care for patients undergoing major thoracic surgery. Thoracic epidural analgesia (TEA) provides effective postoperative analgesia but has unwanted side effects, including hypotension, urinary retention, nausea, and vomiting, and is highly operator dependent. Single-shot intercostal nerve and paravertebral blockade have not been widely used because of the short duration of action of most local anesthetics; however, the recent availability of liposomal bupivacaine (LipoB) offers the potential to provide prolonged blockade of intercostal nerves (72 to 96 hours). We hypothesized that a five-level unilateral posterior intercostal nerve block using LipoB would provide effective analgesia for patients undergoing thoracic surgery. METHODS: We identified patients who underwent lung resection using intraoperative LipoB posterior intercostal nerve blockade and retrospectively compared them with a group of patients who had TEA and who were matched for age, sex, type of surgery, and surgical approach. We analyzed perioperative morbidity, pain scores and narcotic requirements. RESULTS: There were 54 patients in each group. Mean hospital stay was 3.5 days and 4.5 days (p = 0.004) for LipoB group and TEA group, respectively. There were no significant differences in perioperative complications, postoperative pain scores, or in narcotic utilization between LipoB group and TEA group. No acute toxicity related to LipoB was observed. CONCLUSIONS: Posterior intercostal nerve blockade using LipoB is safe and provides effective analgesia for patients undergoing thoracic surgery. It may be considered as a suitable alternative to TEA.

The importance of research in undergraduate medical education.

Currently medical information flows at great speed, bombarding medical students. Students are unfamiliar with fundamental aspects of biomedical literature appraisal. We assert that research performed during medical school will help to reduce the gap between the information available and comprehension by the student. The goal of the present review is to expound the importance of performing research during the undergraduate medical years and the relevance of research in other fields of medicine. We performed a literature review searching MEDLINE with terms consistent with our objective. We discuss the conduct of research projects during medical school training. The analysis of the articles retrieved proves that research is feasible and that it is a critical process during the undergraduate period for medical students.

La información médica en la actualidad fluye a una gran velocidad y en cantidades nunca antes vistas. Los estudiantes de medicina son sometidos a una avalancha de información constante con pocos conocimientos del tema. Creemos que durante el pregrado la investigación en medicina es una posibilidad de cerrar esta brecha de conocimiento. El objetivo del presente estudio es demostrar la importancia de la realización de investigación durante el pregrado de medicina, así como la importancia que esta cobra en otras áreas de la medicina. Realizamos una revisión narrativa de la literatura de la base de datos de MEDLINE mediante términos correspondientes al tema. De forma adicional se discutieron otros temas relevantes para la adecuada realización de proyectos de investigación durante el pregrado. El análisis de los artículos encontrados demostró cómo la investigación es factible y fundamental en el pregrado de medicina para un adecuado desarrollo de los médicos en formación.

[Brain calcifications: a case presentation of congenital toxoplasmosis]. / Calcificaciones en el cerebro: presentación de un caso de toxoplasmosis congénita.

Toxoplasmosis is a common disease in Latin America. The infection has a major impact on public health worldwide. Congenital toxoplasmosis is part of the spectrum of the disease and the consequences for the newborn are devastating. In this article, we present a case of brain calcifications and hydrocephalus secondary to infection with Toxoplasma gondii in a newborn, as well as the outcome during follow-up and long-term sequelae. It is of high importance for the clinician to think about this disease, due to its high prevalence in Latin America, and to adopt adequate measures for its prevention and timely management in order to reduce long-term sequelae.

La toxoplasmosis es una enfermedad común en la población latinoamericana. Esta infección tiene un gran impacto en la salud pública a nivel mundial. Dentro del espectro de la infección, se encuentra la toxoplasmosis congénita. Las consecuencias de la infección intrauterina por Toxoplasma gondii, son nefastas para el recién nacido. En este artículo se presenta un caso de calcificaciones en el cerebro e hidrocefalia secundarias a infección por Toxoplasma gondii en un recién nacido, así como el desenlace durante el seguimiento y secuelas a largo plazo. Es de importancia que el clínico no olvide la alta prevalencia de toxoplasmosis en la población latinoamericana y que tome medidas adecuadas para su prevención y manejo oportuno que logren disminuir las secuelas a largo plazo.