Advances in computer-generated holography for targeted neuronal modulation.

Genetically encoded calcium indicators and optogenetics have revolutionized neuroscience by enabling the detection and modulation of neural activity with single-cell precision using light. To fully leverage the immense potential of these techniques, advanced optical instruments that can place a light on custom ensembles of neurons with a high level of spatial and temporal precision are required. Modern light sculpting techniques that have the capacity to shape a beam of light are preferred because they can precisely target multiple neurons simultaneously and modulate the activity of large ensembles of individual neurons at rates that match natural neuronal dynamics. The most versatile approach, computer-generated holography (CGH), relies on a computer-controlled light modulator placed in the path of a coherent laser beam to synthesize custom three-dimensional (3D) illumination patterns and illuminate neural ensembles on demand. Here, we review recent progress in the development and implementation of fast and spatiotemporally precise CGH techniques that sculpt light in 3D to optically interrogate neural circuit functions.

Anhedonia and Hyperhedonia in Autism and Related Neurodevelopmental Disorders.

Although autism spectrum disorder (ASD) is defined by impaired social communication and restricted and repetitive behaviors and interests, ASD is also characterized by impaired motivational processes. The "social motivation theory of autism" describes how social motivation disruptions in ASD in early childhood may impede the drive to engage in reciprocal social behaviors and ultimately interfere with the development of neural networks critical for social communication (Chevallier et al., Trends Cogn Sci 16:231-239, 2012b). Importantly, clinical studies and preclinical research using model organisms for ASD indicate that motivational impairments in ASD are not constrained to social rewards but are evident in response to a range of nonsocial rewards as well. Additionally, translational studies on certain genetically defined neurodevelopmental disorders associated with ASD indicate that these syndromic forms of ASD are also characterized by motivational deficits and mesolimbic dopamine impairments. In this chapter we summarize clinical and preclinical research relevant to reward processing impairments in ASD and related neurodevelopmental disorders. We also propose a nosology to describe reward processing impairments in these disorders that uses a three-axes model. In this triaxial nosology, the first axis defines the direction of the reward response (i.e., anhedonic, hyperhedonic); the second axis defines the construct of the reward process (e.g., reward liking, reward wanting); and the third axis defines the context of the reward response (e.g., social, nonsocial). A more precise nosology for describing reward processing impairments in ASD and related neurodevelopmental disorders will aid in the translation of preclinical research to clinical investigations which will ultimately help to speed up the development of interventions that target motivational systems for ASD and related neurodevelopmental disorders.

Developments from Bulk Optogenetics to Single-Cell Strategies to Dissect the Neural Circuits that Underlie Aberrant Motivational States.

Motivational states are regulated by complex networks across brain regions that are composed of genetically and functionally distinct neuronal populations. Disruption within these neural circuits leads to aberrant motivational states and are thought to be the root cause of psychiatric disorders related to reward processing and addiction. Critical technological advances in the field have revolutionized the study of neural systems by allowing the use of optical strategies to precisely control and visualize neural activity within genetically identified neural populations in the brain. This review will provide a brief introduction into the history of how technological advances in single-cell strategies have been applied to elucidate the neural circuits that underlie aberrant motivational states that often lead to dysfunction in reward processing and addiction.

Cell-type diversity in the bed nucleus of the stria terminalis to regulate motivated behaviors.

Over the past few decades, the bed nucleus of the stria terminalis (BNST) gained popularity as a unique brain region involved in regulating motivated behaviors related to neuropsychiatric disorders. The BNST, a component of the extended amygdala, consists of a variety of subnuclei and neuronal ensembles. Multiple studies have highlighted the BNST as playing a fundamental role in integrating information by interfacing with other brain regions to regulate distinct aspects of motivated behaviors associated with stress, anxiety, depression, and decision-making. However, due to the high molecular heterogeneity found within BNST neurons, the precise mechanisms by which this region regulates distinct motivational states remains largely unclear. Single-cell RNA sequencing data have revealed that the BNST consists of multiple genetically identifiable cell-type clusters. Contemporary tools can therefore be leveraged to target and study such cell-types and elucidate their precise functional role. In this review, we discuss the different subsets of neurons found in the BNST, their anatomical distribution, and what is currently known about BNST cell-types in regulating motivated behaviors.

Prepronociceptin-Expressing Neurons in the Extended Amygdala Encode and Promote Rapid Arousal Responses to Motivationally Salient Stimuli.

Motivational states consist of cognitive, emotional, and physiological components controlled by multiple brain regions. An integral component of this neural circuitry is the bed nucleus of the stria terminalis (BNST). Here, we identify that neurons within BNST that express the gene prepronociceptin (PnocBNST) modulate rapid changes in physiological arousal that occur upon exposure to motivationally salient stimuli. Using in vivo two-photon calcium imaging, we find that PnocBNST neuronal responses directly correspond with rapid increases in pupillary size when mice are exposed to aversive and rewarding odors. Furthermore, optogenetic activation of these neurons increases pupillary size and anxiety-like behaviors but does not induce approach, avoidance, or locomotion. These findings suggest that excitatory responses in PnocBNST neurons encode rapid arousal responses that modulate anxiety states. Further histological, electrophysiological, and single-cell RNA sequencing data reveal that PnocBNST neurons are composed of genetically and anatomically identifiable subpopulations that may differentially tune rapid arousal responses to motivational stimuli.

Social Stimuli Induce Activation of Oxytocin Neurons Within the Paraventricular Nucleus of the Hypothalamus to Promote Social Behavior in Male Mice.

Oxytocin (OT) is critical for the expression of social behavior across a wide array of species; however, the role of this system in the encoding of socially relevant information is not well understood. In the present study, we show that chemogenetic activation of OT neurons within the paraventricular nucleus of the hypothalamus (PVH) of male mice (OT-Ires-Cre) enhanced social investigation during a social choice test, while chemogenetic inhibition of these neurons abolished typical social preferences. These data suggest that activation of the OT system is necessary to direct behavior preferentially toward social stimuli. To determine whether the presence of a social stimulus is sufficient to induce activation of PVH-OT neurons, we performed the first definitive recording of OT neurons in awake mice using two-photon calcium imaging. These recordings demonstrate that social stimuli activate PVH-OT neurons and that these neurons differentially encode social and nonsocial stimuli, suggesting that PVH-OT neurons may act to convey social salience of environmental stimuli. Finally, an attenuation of social salience is associated with social disorders, such as autism. We therefore also examined possible OT system dysfunction in a mouse model of autism, Shank3b knock-out (KO) mice. Male Shank3b KO mice showed a marked reduction in PVH-OT neuron number and administration of an OT receptor agonist improved social deficits. Overall, these data suggest that the presence of a social stimulus induces activation of the PVH-OT neurons to promote adaptive social behavior responses.SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT Although the oxytocin (OT) system is well known to regulate a diverse array of social behaviors, the mechanism in which OT acts to promote the appropriate social response is poorly understood. One hypothesis is that the presence of social conspecifics activates the OT system to generate an adaptive social response. Here, we selectively recorded from OT neurons in the paraventricular hypothalamic nucleus (PVH) to show that social stimulus exposure indeed induces activation of the OT system. We also show that activation of the OT system is necessary to promote social behavior and that mice with abnormal social behavior have reduced numbers of PVH-OT neurons. Finally, aberrant social behavior in these mice was rescued by administration of an OT receptor agonist.

Paraventricular Thalamus Projection Neurons Integrate Cortical and Hypothalamic Signals for Cue-Reward Processing.

The paraventricular thalamus (PVT) is an interface for brain reward circuits, with input signals arising from structures, such as prefrontal cortex and hypothalamus, that are broadcast to downstream limbic targets. However, the precise synaptic connectivity, activity, and function of PVT circuitry for reward processing are unclear. Here, using in vivo two-photon calcium imaging, we find that PVT neurons projecting to the nucleus accumbens (PVT-NAc) develop inhibitory responses to reward-predictive cues coding for both cue-reward associative information and behavior. The multiplexed activity in PVT-NAc neurons is directed by opposing activity patterns in prefrontal and lateral hypothalamic afferent axons. Further, we find that prefrontal cue encoding may maintain accurate cue-reward processing, as optogenetic disruption of this encoding induced long-lasting effects on downstream PVT-NAc cue responses and behavioral cue discrimination. Together, these data reveal that PVT-NAc neurons act as an interface for reward processing by integrating relevant inputs to accurately inform reward-seeking behavior.

Single-cell activity tracking reveals that orbitofrontal neurons acquire and maintain a long-term memory to guide behavioral adaptation.

Learning to predict rewards based on environmental cues is essential for survival. The orbitofrontal cortex (OFC) contributes to such learning by conveying reward-related information to brain areas such as the ventral tegmental area (VTA). Despite this, how cue-reward memory representations form in individual OFC neurons and are modified based on new information is unknown. To address this, using in vivo two-photon calcium imaging in mice, we tracked the response evolution of thousands of OFC output neurons, including those projecting to VTA, through multiple days and stages of cue-reward learning. Collectively, we show that OFC contains several functional clusters of neurons distinctly encoding cue-reward memory representations, with only select responses routed downstream to VTA. Unexpectedly, these representations were stably maintained by the same neurons even after extinction of the cue-reward pairing, and supported behavioral learning and memory. Thus, OFC neuronal activity represents a long-term cue-reward associative memory to support behavioral adaptation.

Active avoidance requires inhibitory signaling in the rodent prelimbic prefrontal cortex.

Much is known about the neural circuits of conditioned fear and its relevance to understanding anxiety disorders, but less is known about other anxiety-related behaviors such as active avoidance. Using a tone-signaled, platform-mediated avoidance task, we observed that pharmacological inactivation of the prelimbic prefrontal cortex (PL) delayed avoidance. Surprisingly, optogenetic silencing of PL glutamatergic neurons did not delay avoidance. Consistent with this, inhibitory but not excitatory responses of rostral PL neurons were associated with avoidance training. To test the importance of these inhibitory responses, we optogenetically stimulated PL neurons to counteract the tone-elicited reduction in firing rate. Photoactivation of rostral (but not caudal) PL neurons at 4 Hz impaired avoidance. These findings suggest that inhibitory responses of rostral PL neurons signal the avoidability of a potential threat and underscore the importance of designing behavioral optogenetic studies based on neuronal firing responses.

Social Isolation Co-opts Fear and Aggression Circuits.

Social isolation is a stressful condition that often leads to maladaptive behaviors. In this issue of Cell, Zelikowsky et al. find that chronic social isolation stress triggers an increase in neuronal tachykinin signaling across distinct brain regions that mediate fear and aggression, elucidating the neural basis of these maladaptive responses.

Efficient and accurate extraction of in vivo calcium signals from microendoscopic video data.

In vivo calcium imaging through microendoscopic lenses enables imaging of previously inaccessible neuronal populations deep within the brains of freely moving animals. However, it is computationally challenging to extract single-neuronal activity from microendoscopic data, because of the very large background fluctuations and high spatial overlaps intrinsic to this recording modality. Here, we describe a new constrained matrix factorization approach to accurately separate the background and then demix and denoise the neuronal signals of interest. We compared the proposed method against previous independent components analysis and constrained nonnegative matrix factorization approaches. On both simulated and experimental data recorded from mice, our method substantially improved the quality of extracted cellular signals and detected more well-isolated neural signals, especially in noisy data regimes. These advances can in turn significantly enhance the statistical power of downstream analyses, and ultimately improve scientific conclusions derived from microendoscopic data.

The habenula.

The habenula is a tiny brain region the size of a pea in humans. This region is highly conserved across vertebrates and has been traditionally overlooked by neuroscientists. The name habenula is derived from the Latin word habena, meaning "little rein", because of its elongated shape. Originally its function was thought to be related to the regulation of the nearby pineal gland (which Rene Descartes described as the "principal seat of the soul"). More recent evidence, however, demonstrates that the habenula acts as a critical neuroanatomical hub that connects and regulates brain regions important for divergent motivational states and cognition. In this Primer, we will discuss the recent and converging evidence that points to the habenula as a key brain region for motivation and decision-making.

Circuit-Based Corticostriatal Homologies Between Rat and Primate.

BACKGROUND: Understanding the neural mechanisms of psychiatric disorders requires the use of rodent models; however, frontal-striatal homologies between rodents and primates are unclear. In contrast, within the striatum, the shell of the nucleus accumbens, the hippocampal projection zone, and the amygdala projection zone (referred to as the striatal emotion processing network [EPN]) are conserved across species. We used the relationship between the EPN and projections from the anterior cingulate cortex (ACC) and orbitofrontal cortex (OFC) to assess network similarities across rats and monkeys. METHODS: We first compared the location and extent of each major component of the EPN in rats and macaques. Next, we used anatomic cases with anterograde injections in ACC/OFC to determine the extent to which corticostriatal terminal fields overlapped with these components and with each other. RESULTS: The location and size of each component of the EPN were similar across species, containing projections primarily from infralimbic cortex in rats and area 25 in monkeys. Other ACC/OFC terminals overlapped extensively with infralimbic cortex/area 25 projections, supporting cross-species similarities in OFC topography. However, dorsal ACC had different connectivity profiles across species. These results were used to segment the monkey and rat striata according to ACC/OFC inputs. CONCLUSIONS: Based on connectivity with the EPN, and consistent with prior literature, the infralimbic cortex and area 25 are likely homologues. We also see evidence of OFC homologies. Along with segmenting the striatum and identifying striatal hubs of overlapping inputs, these results help to translate findings between rodent models and human pathology.

Bidirectional Modulation of Extinction of Drug Seeking by Deep Brain Stimulation of the Ventral Striatum.

BACKGROUND: Recent research in humans and rodents has explored the use of deep brain stimulation (DBS) of the ventral capsule/ventral striatum (VS) as a possible treatment for drug addiction. However, the optimum electrode placement and optimum DBS parameters have not been thoroughly studied. Here we varied stimulation sites and frequencies to determine whether DBS of the VS could facilitate the extinction of morphine-induced conditioned place preference in rats. METHODS: Rats were implanted with DBS electrodes in the dorsal or ventral subregions of the VS and trained to the morphine conditioned place preference. Subsequently, rats received extinction sessions over 9 days, combined with 60 min of either high- (130 Hz) or low- (20 Hz) frequency DBS. To study circuit-wide activations after DBS of the VS, c-fos immunohistochemistry was performed in regions involved in the extinction of drug-seeking behaviors. RESULTS: High-frequency DBS of the dorsal-VS impaired both extinction training and extinction memory, whereas high-frequency DBS of the ventral-VS had no effect. In contrast, low-frequency DBS of the dorsal-VS strengthened extinction memory when tested 2 or 9 days after the cessation of stimulation. Both DBS frequencies increased c-fos expression in the infralimbic prefrontal cortex, but only low-frequency DBS increased c-fos expression in the basal amygdala and the medial portion of the central amygdala. CONCLUSIONS: Our results suggest that low-frequency (rather than high-frequency) DBS of the dorsal-VS strengthens extinction memory and may be a potential adjunct for extinction-based therapies for treatment-refractory opioid addiction.

An Avoidance-Based Rodent Model of Exposure With Response Prevention Therapy for Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder.

BACKGROUND: Obsessive-compulsive disorder is treated with exposure with response prevention (ERP) therapy, in which patients are repeatedly exposed to compulsive triggers but prevented from expressing their compulsions. Many compulsions are an attempt to avoid perceived dangers, and the intent of ERP is to extinguish compulsions. Patients failing ERP therapy are candidates for deep brain stimulation (DBS) of the ventral capsule/ventral striatum, which facilitates patients' response to ERP therapy. An animal model of ERP would be useful for understanding the neural mechanisms of extinction in obsessive-compulsive disorder. METHODS: Using a platform-mediated signaled avoidance task, we developed a rodent model of ERP called extinction with response prevention (Ext-RP), in which avoidance-conditioned rats are given extinction trials while blocking access to the avoidance platform. Following 3 days of Ext-RP, rats were tested with the platform unblocked to evaluate persistent avoidance. We then assessed if pharmacologic inactivation of lateral orbitofrontal cortex (lOFC) or DBS of the ventral striatum reduced persistent avoidance. RESULTS: Following Ext-RP training, most rats showed reduced avoidance at test (Ext-RP success), but a subset persisted in their avoidance (Ext-RP failure). Pharmacologic inactivation of lOFC eliminated persistent avoidance, as did DBS applied to the ventral striatum during Ext-RP. CONCLUSIONS: DBS of ventral striatum has been previously shown to inhibit lOFC activity. Thus, activity in lOFC, which is known to be hyperactive in obsessive-compulsive disorder, may be responsible for impairing patients' response to ERP therapy.

Enhancement of fear extinction with deep brain stimulation: evidence for medial orbitofrontal involvement.

Deep brain stimulation (DBS) of the ventral capsule/ventral striatum (VC/VS) reduces anxiety, fear, and compulsive symptoms in patients suffering from refractory obsessive-compulsive disorder. In a rodent model, DBS-like high-frequency stimulation of VS can either enhance or impair extinction of conditioned fear, depending on the location of electrodes within VS (dorsal vs ventral). As striatal DBS activates fibers descending from the cortex, we reasoned that the differing effects on extinction may reflect differences in cortical sources of fibers passing through dorsal-VS and ventral-VS. In agreement with prior anatomical studies, we found that infralimbic (IL) and anterior insular (AI) cortices project densely through ventral-VS, the site where DBS impaired extinction. Contrary to IL and AI, we found that medial orbitofrontal cortex (mOFC) projects densely through dorsal-VS, the site where DBS enhanced extinction. Furthermore, pharmacological inactivation of mOFC reduced conditioned fear and DBS of dorsal-VS-induced plasticity (pERK) in mOFC neurons. Our results support the idea that VS DBS modulates fear extinction by stimulating specific fibers descending from mOFC and prefrontal cortices.

Long-range GABAergic neurons in the prefrontal cortex modulate behavior.

Cortical glutamatergic projections are extensively studied in behavioral neuroscience, whereas cortical GABAergic projections to downstream structures have been overlooked. A recent study by Lee and colleagues (Lee AT, Vogt D, Rubenstein JL, Sohal VS. J Neurosci 34: 11519-11525, 2014) used optogenetic and electrophysiological techniques to characterize a behavioral role for long-projecting GABAergic neurons in the medial prefrontal cortex. In this Neuro Forum, we discuss the potential implications of this study in several learning and memory models.

Deep brain stimulation of the ventral striatum increases BDNF in the fear extinction circuit.

Deep brain stimulation (DBS) of the ventral capsule/ventral striatum (VC/VS) reduces the symptoms of treatment-resistant obsessive compulsive disorder (OCD), and improves response to extinction-based therapies. We recently reported that DBS-like stimulation of a rat homologue of VC/VS, the dorsal-VS, reduced conditioned fear and enhanced extinction memory (Rodriguez-Romaguera et al., 2012). In contrast, DBS of the ventral-VS had the opposite effects. To examine possible mechanisms of these effects, we assessed the effects of VS DBS on the expression of the neural activity marker Fos and brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF), a key mediator of extinction plasticity in prefrontal-amygdala circuits. Consistent with decreased fear expression, DBS of dorsal-VS increased Fos expression in prelimbic and infralimbic prefrontal cortices and in the lateral division of the central nucleus of amygdala, an area that inhibits amygdala output. Consistent with improved extinction memory, we found that DBS of dorsal-VS, but not ventral-VS, increased neuronal BDNF expression in prelimbic and infralimbic prefrontal cortices. These rodent findings are consistent with the idea that clinical DBS of VC/VS may augment fear extinction through an increase in BDNF expression.

Deep brain stimulation of the ventral striatum enhances extinction of conditioned fear.

Deep brain stimulation (DBS) of the ventral capsule/ventral striatum (VC/VS) reduces symptoms of intractable obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD), but the mechanism of action is unknown. OCD is characterized by avoidance behaviors that fail to extinguish, and DBS could act, in part, by facilitating extinction of fear. We investigated this possibility by using auditory fear conditioning in rats, for which the circuits of fear extinction are well characterized. We found that DBS of the VS (the VC/VS homolog in rats) during extinction training reduced fear expression and strengthened extinction memory. Facilitation of extinction was observed for a specific zone of dorsomedial VS, just above the anterior commissure; stimulation of more ventrolateral sites in VS impaired extinction. DBS effects could not be obtained with pharmacological inactivation of either dorsomedial VS or ventrolateral VS, suggesting an extrastriatal mechanism. Accordingly, DBS of dorsomedial VS (but not ventrolateral VS) increased expression of a plasticity marker in the prelimbic and infralimbic prefrontal cortices, the orbitofrontal cortex, the amygdala central nucleus (lateral division), and intercalated cells, areas known to learn and express extinction. Facilitation of fear extinction suggests that, in accord with clinical observations, DBS could augment the effectiveness of cognitive behavioral therapies for OCD.