Characterization of dendritic cells in human and experimental myocarditis.

AIMS: Dendritic cells (DCs) are central mediators of adaptive immunity, and there is growing evidence of their role in myocardial inflammatory disease. We hypothesized that plasmacytoid and myeloid DCs are involved in the mechanisms of myocarditis and analysed these two main subtypes in human myocarditis subjects, as well as in a murine model of experimental autoimmune myocarditis (EAM). METHODS AND RESULTS: Circulating DCs were analysed by flow cytometry in patients with acute myocarditis, dilated cardiomyopathy, and controls. Myocardial biopsies were immunostained for the presence of DCs and compared with non-diseased controls. In a mouse model of acute myocarditis induced through synthetic cardiac myosine peptide injection, effects of immunomodulation including DC inhibition through MCS-18 versus placebo treatment were tested at the peak of inflammation (Day 21), as well as 1 week later (partial recovery). Circulatory pDCs and mDCs were significantly reduced in myocarditis patients compared with controls (P < 0.01 for both) and remained so even after 6 months of follow-up. Human myocarditis biopsies showed accumulation of pDCs (two-fold CD304+/three-fold CD123+, all P < 0.05) compared with controls. Myocardial pDCs and mDCs accumulated in EAM (P for both <0.0001). MCS-18 treatment reduced pDC levels (P = 0.009), reduced myocardial inflammation (myocarditis score reduction from 2.6 to 1.8, P = 0.026), and improved ejection fraction (P = 0.03) in EAM at Day 21 (peak of inflammation). This effect was not observed during the partial recovery of inflammation on Day 28. CONCLUSIONS: Circulating DCs are reduced in human myocarditis and accumulate in the inflamed myocardium. MCS-18 treatment reduces DCs in EAM, leading to amelioration of inflammation and left ventricular remodelling during the acute phase of myocarditis. Our data further elucidate the role of DCs and their specific subsets in acute inflammatory cardiomyopathies.

Analysis of Novel Cardiovascular Biomarkers in Patients With Pulmonary Hypertension (PH).

BACKGROUND: Due to the non-specific clinical presentation of patients with pulmonary hypertension (PH), diagnosis is often delayed, consequently resulting in limited therapeutic success and an impaired prognosis. In this trial, we analysed the plasma concentrations of novel cardiovascular biomarkers that reflect different pathobiological pathways (sST2: soluble suppression of tumorigenicity 2, H-FABP: heart type fatty acid binding protein, suPAR: soluble urokinase plasminogen activator receptor and GDF-15: growth-differentiation factor-15) potentially involved in PH associated vascular and right ventricular remodelling. Thus, these markers could contribute to the development of a non-invasive approach for diagnosis and therapy surveillance of PH patients in the future. METHODS: In total, we enrolled 162 patients in this single-centre retrospective analysis consisting of 88 patients suffering from PH and 74 controls. The latter were admitted for elective coronary angiography and coronary artery disease was excluded. Plasma samples of all patients were obtained and analysed for sST2, H-FABP, GDF-15 and suPAR serum concentrations by means of enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) kits (DuoSet ELISA, DY523B, DY957, DY807, DGAL30, R&D Systems, Minneapolis, MN, USA) after obtaining informed consent. RESULTS: Compared with controls, all of the investigated biomarkers were significantly elevated in patients with pulmonary hypertension (H-FABP median 3.5 ng/ml vs. median 0.0 ng/ml, p < 0.001; sST2 median 6364.6 pg/ml vs. median 5015.9 pg/ml, p = 0.004; GDF-15 median 1829.3 pg/ml vs. median 514.1 pg/ml, p < 0.001; suPAR median 4878.7 pg/ml vs. median 2227.0 pg/ml, p < 0.001). Interestingly, we found a significant difference in the biomarker concentrations of H-FABP, GDF-15 and suPAR between the five groups of pulmonary hypertension. In fact, we found that H-FABP levels were primarily elevated in group 2 and 3 PH, whereas the concentrations of GDF-15 and suPAR were primarily associated with pulmonary hypertension due to left sided heart disease (group 2). CONCLUSIONS: While sST2 constitutes a general biomarker of pulmonary hypertension regardless of the subtype, H-FABP, GDF-15 and suPAR represent indicators of postcapillary PH. Thereby, they could constitute potential discriminators between pre- and postcapillary PH.

Cellular inflammation in pulmonary hypertension: Detailed analysis of lung and right ventricular tissue, circulating immune cells and effects of a dual endothelin receptor antagonist.

Growing evidence suggests that inflammation is crucially involved in the pathogenesis of pulmonary hypertension (PH) and consecutive right heart failure. The present study analyzed the inflammatory response in lung and right ventricle in a rat model of PH and evaluated the effects of the dual endothelin receptor antagonist (ERA) Macitentan. PH was induced by monocrotalin (60 mg/kg body weight s.c.) in Sprague-Dawley rats (PH, n = 10) and compared to healthy controls (CON, n = 10) as well as monocrotalin-induced, macitentan-treated rats (THER, n = 10). Detection of Dendritic cells (DCs), regulatory T cells (Tregs) and others as well as RT-PCR based inflammatory gene expression analysis were performed. Circulating DCs and Tregs were quantified by flow cytometry in the rat model and in PH patients (n = 70) compared to controls (n = 52). Inflammatory cells were increased in lung and right ventricular tissue, whereas DCs and Tregs were decreased in blood. Expression of 17 genes in the lung and 20 genes in the right ventricle were relevantly (>2.0 fold) regulated in the PH group. These effects were, at least in part, attenuated in response to Macitentan treatment. In humans as well as rats, immune cells showed significant correlations to clinical, echocardiographic, and haemodynamic parameters. PH is accompanied by a distinct inflammatory response in lung and right but not left ventricular tissue attenuated by Macitentan. Correlations of circulating DCs as well as tissue resident immune cells with parameters reflecting right ventricular function raise the idea of both, promising biomarkers and novel treatment strategies.

Specifics of fetuin-A levels in distinct types of chronic heart failure.

INTRODUCTION: Fetuin-A has been described to correlate inversely with vascular calcification both in animal models but also in patients with heart and renal disease. In this current study, we sought to investigate whether fetuin-A might be a useful marker for the discrimination of ischemic (ICM) from dilated cardiomyopathy (DCM). METHODS: A total of 124 non-consecutive patients were included in this study, 59 patients suffered from ICM and 65 patients from DCM. Serum samples were obtained during out-patient visits and analyzed for fetuin-A by ELISA. RESULTS: Median fetuin-A concentration in the overall cohort was significantly lower in ICM patients compared to DCM patients (62.2±16.4 µg/mL vs. 129.6±56.6 µg/mL; P<.001). A positive correlation of fetuin-A levels was found with BMI, cholesterol, LDL/HDL ratio and triglycerides and an inverse correlation with age (r=-.36; P<.001). Moreover, patients suffering from (stable) angina pectoris evidenced lower fetuin-A levels compared to non-symptomatic patients (73.1±22.7 µg/mL vs. 83.7±26.2 µg/mL; P=.047) CONCLUSIONS: Fetuin-A was shown to be a potential discriminator and biomarker for the differential diagnosis between ICM and DCM. Fetuin-A levels might also be helpful in the process of diagnostic decision-making in regards to invasive management or medical therapy.

Influences of Ivabradine treatment on serum levels of cardiac biomarkers sST2, GDF-15, suPAR and H-FABP in patients with chronic heart failure.

Chronic heart failure (CHF) represents a major cause of hospitalization and death. Recent evidence shows that novel biomarkers such as soluble suppression of tumorigenicity (sST2), growth-differentiation factor-15 (GDF-15), soluble urokinase plasminogen activator receptor (suPAR) and heart-type fatty acid binding protein (H-FABP) are correlated with inflammatory and ischemic responses in CHF patients. In this study we examined the effects of Ivabradine that inhibited the hyperpolarization-activated cyclic nucleotide-gated channel (HCN channel, also called funny current If), thereby leading to selective heart rate reduction and improved myocardial oxygen supply on the cardiac biomarkers sST2, GDF-15, suPAR and H-FABP in 50 CHF patients at the University Hospital of Jena. Patients were divided into three groups based on the etiology of CHF: dilated cardiomyopathy (DCM, n=20), ischemic cardiomyopathy (ICM, n=20) and hypertensive cardiomyopathy (HCM, n=10). The patients were administered Ivabradine (5 mg, bid for 3 months, and 7.5 mg bid for further 3 months). Analyses of cardiovascular biomarkers were performed at baseline as well as at 3- and 6-month follow-ups. At 6-month follow-up, GDF-15 levels were significantly reduced compared to baseline levels (P=0.0215), indicating a reduction in the progress of cardiac remodeling. H-FABP concentration was significantly lower in DCM patients compared to ICM (1.89 vs 3.24 µg/mL) and HCM patients (1.89 vs 3.80 µg/mL), and decreased over the 6-month follow-up (P=0.0151). suPAR median levels remained elevated, implying major ongoing inflammatory processes. As shown by significant decreases in GDF-15 and H-FABP levels, a reduction in ventricular remodeling and sub-clinical ischemia could be assumed. However, markers of hemodynamic stress (sST2) and inflammation (suPAR) showed no change or progression after 6 months of Ivabradine treatment in CHF patients. Further studies are necessary to validate the clinical applicability of these novel cardiovascular biomarkers.

Increased Serum Levels of Fetal Tenascin-C Variants in Patients with Pulmonary Hypertension: Novel Biomarkers Reflecting Vascular Remodeling and Right Ventricular Dysfunction?

Pulmonary vascular remodeling is a pathophysiological feature that common to all classes of pulmonary hypertension (PH) and right ventricular dysfunction, which is the major prognosis-limiting factor. Vascular, as well as cardiac tissue remodeling are associated with a re-expression of fetal variants of cellular adhesion proteins, including tenascin-C (Tn-C). We analyzed circulating levels of the fetal Tn-C splicing variants B⁺ and C⁺ Tn-C in serum of PH patients to evaluate their potential as novel biomarkers reflecting vascular remodeling and right ventricular dysfunction. Serum concentrations of B⁺ and C⁺ Tn-C were determined in 80 PH patients and were compared to 40 healthy controls by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay. Clinical, laboratory, echocardiographic, and functional data were correlated with Tn-C levels. Serum concentrations of both Tn-C variants were significantly elevated in patients with PH (p < 0.05). Significant correlations could be observed between Tn-C and echocardiographic parameters, including systolic pulmonary artery pressure (B⁺ Tn-C: r = 0.31, p < 0.001, C⁺ Tn-C: r = 0.26, p = 0.006) and right atrial area (B⁺ Tn-C: r = 0.46, p < 0.001, C⁺ Tn-C: r = 0.49, p < 0.001), and laboratory values like BNP (B⁺ Tn-C: r = 0.45, p < 0.001, C⁺ Tn-C: r = 0.42, p < 0.001). An inverse correlation was observed between Tn-C variants and 6-minute walk distance as a functional parameter (B⁺ Tn-C: r = -0.54, p < 0.001, C⁺ Tn-C: r = -0.43, p < 0.001). In a multivariate analysis, B⁺ Tn-C, but not C⁺ Tn-C, was found to be an independent predictor of pulmonary hypertension. Both fetal Tn-C variants may represent novel biomarkers that are capable of estimating both pulmonary vascular remodeling and right ventricular load. The potential beneficial impact of Tn-C variants for risk stratification in patients with PH needs further investigation.

Elevated plasma levels of interleukin-16 in patients with acute myocardial infarction.

Interleukin (IL)-16, a polypeptide cytokine, plays a crucial role in the inflammatory process, acting as a chemoattractant for peripheral immune cells and has been linked to various inflammatory diseases. However, its role in patients with acute myocardial infarction (AMI) is unclear.We retrospectively analyzed serum levels of IL-16 in blood of patients with (STEMI, n = 45) and without ST-segment elevation myocardial infarction (NSTEMI, n = 42) compared with controls with excluded coronary artery disease (n = 55). Furthermore, correlation analysis with inflammatory cells, C-reactive protein (CRP) levels, dendritic cell precursors (DCPs), and other clinical and biochemical markers was performed.Compared with controls, patients with STEMI and NSTEMI evidenced higher levels of IL-16 in pg/mL (STEMI: 759.38 ±â€Š471.54, NSTEMI: 677.77 ±â€Š438.8, control: 500.45 ±â€Š432.21; P = .002). IL-16 correlated with CRP (r = 0.26, P = .001), leucocytes (r = 0.38, P < .001), NT-proBNP (r = 0.20, P = .02) and hsTnT (r = 0.25, P = .004). Circulating myeloid DCPs, plasmacytoid DCPs, and total DCPs showed a significant inverse correlation to IL-16 levels (r = -0.21, P = .01; r = -0.23, P = .005; r = -0.26, P = .002, respectively).Interleukin-16 might play an important role in the inflammatory process of patients suffering from AMI and correlates with inflammatory cell activation and clinical and biochemical markers. The cytokine IL-16 might upregulate the proinflammatory response and recruitment of inflammatory cells into infarcted myocardium.

Impact of Moderate Altitude on Pro-Inflammatory Cytokines in Healthy Volunteers.

BACKGROUND: The induction of microvascular inflammation and the effects on cytokine production in blood due to hypoxia has been shown in the past. We have previously reported a statistically significant increase of the pro-inflammatory cytokine interleukin-8 (IL-8) in normobaric hypoxia in the setting of a hypoxia-chamber. In the present study, we sought to analyze plasma levels of inflammatory cytokines in a real-life stetting in order to foster our knowledge on hypoxia induced microvascular inflammation at moderate altitude. METHODS: Pro-inflammatory cytokines (IL-8, IL-6, TNF-α) were measured in an experimental field study, exposing 18 healthy volunteers to moderate hypoxia while staying at a mountain lodge in Diavolezza, Switzerland (2978 meters above sea level). Plasma cytokine levels were measured by ELISA. RESULTS: In contradiction to our results in a normobaric hypoxia-chamber, exposure to moderate hypoxia led to a significant decrease of plasma IL-8 levels in a real-life setting (from 2.902 (1.046 - 4.984) pg/mL to 1.395 (0.698 - 3.712) pg/mL, p = 0.034). Concentrations of IL-6 and TNF-α did not show statistically significant changes in comparison to baseline measurements. CONCLUSIONS: The results of this study show a decrease of proinflammatory cytokine IL-8 in a real life setting of moderate altitude in healthy individuals. Initiation of angiogenesis or subliminal stimulus for an altitude-induced inflammatory reaction may be explanations for this unexpected finding.

Multibiomarker analysis in patients with acute myocardial infarction.

BACKGROUND: Novel biomarkers representing different pathobiological pathways and their role in patients with acute myocardial infarction (AMI) were studied. METHODS: We retrospectively analysed serum levels of soluble suppression of tumorigenicity (sST2), growth-differentiation factor-15 (GDF-15), soluble urokinase plasminogen activator receptor (suPAR), heart-type fatty acid-binding protein (H-FABP) and plasma fetuin A in blood of patients with AMI (STEMI, n = 61; NSTEMI, n = 57) compared to controls with excluded coronary artery disease (n = 76). Furthermore, detailed correlation analysis was performed. RESULTS: Compared with controls, in patients with STEMI and NSTEMI higher levels expressed as median of sST2 in pg/mL (STEMI: 13210·9, NSTEMI: 11989·1, control: 5248; P < 0·001), GDF-15 in pg/mL (STEMI: 818·8, NSTEMI 677·5, control 548·6; P < 0·001), suPAR in pg/mL (STEMI: 3461·1, NSTEMI: 3466·7, control: 2463·6; P < 0·001), H-FABP in ng/mL (STEMI: 5·8, NSTEMI: 5·4, control: 0·0; P < 0·001) and lower plasma fetuin A levels in µg/mL (STEMI: 95, NSTEMI: 54, control: 116·6; P < 0·001) were detected. Correlation analysis found clinical and biochemical parameters such as ejection fraction, length of hospital stay, creatine kinase, NT-proBNP and hs Troponin T levels as well as inflammatory markers (CRP, leucocytes) to be significantly correlated with novel biomarkers. CONCLUSION: Plasma levels of novel biomarkers were significantly elevated (sST2, GDF-15, H-FABP, suPAR) or inversely downregulated (fetuin A) in patients with AMI compared to a control group with excluded coronary artery disease. Significant correlations with various clinical parameters and standard biochemical markers were found.

A comparative analysis of novel cardiovascular biomarkers in patients with chronic heart failure.

BACKGROUND: Heart failure (HF) with reduced ejection fraction remains a major therapeutic challenge. The aim of this study was to investigate the role of novel cardiovascular biomarkers, i.e. soluble suppression of tumorigenicity (sST2), growth-differentiation factor-15 (GDF-15), soluble urokinase plasminogen activator receptor (suPAR) and heart-type fatty acid binding protein (H-FABP) in patients with ischaemic (ICM) or dilative cardiomyopathy (DCM). MATERIALS AND METHODS: A total of 200 patients were enrolled in this study: 65 were diagnosed with DCM and 59 patients suffering from ICM were included. 76 patients without coronary artery disease or signs of heart failure were included as controls. Plasma samples of all patients were analyzed by use of ELISA. RESULTS: Levels of sST2, suPAR and H-FABP were significantly higher in ICM and DCM patients compared to the control group (p<0.0001). However, there were no significant differences between ICM and DCM in biomarker levels. Ejection fraction correlated inversely with cardiac biomarkers (sST2 p<0.0001, GDF-15 p=0.0394, suPAR p=0.0029, H-FABP p<0.0001). Similarly, CRP levels also showed a positive correlation with cardiac biomarkers. Renal insufficiency (p<0.0001) and diabetes (sST2 p=0.0021, GDF-15 p=0.0055, suPAR p=0.0339, H-FABP p=0.0010) were significantly associated with a rise in cardiac biomarkers. CONCLUSION: Novel cardiovascular biomarkers such as ST2, GDF-15, uPAR and H-FABP could offer a great potential for more precise diagnostic in ICM and DCM patients. H-FABP was the most promising marker in our study, followed by sST2, uPAR and GDF-15. Additional prospective studies will be necessary to further evaluate the potential clinical benefits in routine treatment of HF.

Acute effects of moderate altitude on biomarkers of cardiovascular inflammation and endothelial function and their differential modulation by dual endothelin receptor blockade.

BACKGROUND: Endothelial dysfunction is accompanied by the release of microparticles (MP). OBJECTIVE: We sought to investigate the effect of moderate hypoxia on circulatory levels of microparticles, biomarkers of cardiovascular function and inflammation and on echocardiographic parameters in healthy volunteers staying at an altitude of 2978 m. METHODS: Eighteen healthy volunteers were subjected to moderate hypoxia by staying at 2978 m above sea level for three days. Blood samples were evaluated for MP using flow cytometry. ELISA analysis was performed for sST2, H-FABP, suPAR and GDF-15. Moreover, the effect of dual endothelin-receptor blockade was investigated. RESULTS: Oxygen saturation decreased to 93%. A significant decrease of endothelial and platelet MP levels was found. These results were corroborated by a similar response in sST2 and suPAR plasma concentration. Endothelin-receptor blockade by macitentan only had a marginal influence on MP, sST2, H-FABP, suPAR and GDF-15 levels, though it led to a significant amelioration of echocardiographic parameters of right heart function. CONCLUSIONS: These experimental results show that moderate hypoxia due to altitude exposition led to a reduction in parameters of endothelial dysfunction as shown by a decrease in endothelial and platelet MP, sST2 and suPAR levels. A slight increase in pulmonary pressure at moderate altitude was decreased by dual endothelin receptor blockade.

Quantification of mitral regurgitation during percutaneous mitral valve repair: added value of simultaneous hemodynamic and 3D echocardiographic assessment.

The objective of this study was to investigate the usefulness of intraprocedural hemodynamic monitoring for MR evaluation during pMRV. Assessment of mitral regurgitation (MR) during percutaneous mitral valve repair (pMVR) procedure is challenging. 3D color Doppler allows exact quantification of MR, but is technically demanding. Sixty patients with moderate to severe MR (14 with structural and 46 functional MR) were included in the study. Intraprocedural pressure curves were continuously obtained in the left atrium (LA) and left ventricle (LV). Transesophageal echocardiography was performed using 3D color Doppler derived mean vena contracta area (VCAmean) and mitral regurgitation volume (RegVol) to quantify MR severity before and after each clip implantation. In the entire patient group, strongest correlations were observed firstly between VCA and the raise of the ascending limb of the left atrial V pressure wave (Vascend; r = 0.58, p < 0.001) and secondly between the difference of peak V wave pressure and mean LA pressure divided by systolic LV pressure [(Vpeak - LAmean) - LVsystole; r = 0.53, p < 0.001]. In patients with structural MR, the highest area under the ROC curve for prediction of mild MR (VCAmean < 0.2 cm² and RegVol < 30 ml) after clip implantation was found for Vascend (AUC 0.89, p < 0.001) whereas in functional MR calculation of (Vpeak - LAmean) - LVsystole showed the highest predictive value (AUC 0.69, p = 0.003). Invasive pressure monitoring can give a direct feedback with regard to the success of clip placement during pMVR.

Impact of Ivabradine on Inflammatory Markers in Chronic Heart Failure.

Background. Inflammation plays a crucial role in the progression of chronic heart failure (CHF). Ivabradine is known to reduce the morbidity and mortality of patients with CHF under certain conditions. Beyond the reduction of heart rate, only limited knowledge exists about potential anti-inflammatory effects of ivabradine that might contribute to its benefit in CHF. Thus, the present study aimed to investigate the effect of ivabradine on systemic inflammation. Methods. In the present study, 33 patients with CHF due to dilated, ischemic, and hypertensive cardiomyopathy were treated with ivabradine according to the guidelines of the European Society of Cardiology (ESC). A number of circulating dendritic cells as well as inflammatory mediators were investigated using FACS analysis and ELISA, respectively, before and during ivabradine therapy. Results. Treatment with ivabradine resulted in a significant improvement of CHF symptoms as well as an increase in left ventricular ejection fraction. Moreover, ivabradine treatment led to a significant reduction of TNF-alpha (TNF-α) serum levels and a reconstitution of circulating dendritic cells which are known to be reduced in patients with CHF. Conclusion. We show that treatment with ivabradine in patients with CHF resulted in an improvement of HF symptoms and ejection fraction as well as a normalization of inflammatory mediators.

Lung tissue remodelling in MCT-induced pulmonary hypertension: a proposal for a novel scoring system and changes in extracellular matrix and fibrosis associated gene expression.

Pulmonary hypertension (PH) is associated with vasoconstriction and remodelling. We studied lung tissue remodelling in a rat model of PH with special focus on histology and extracellular matrix (ECM) remodelling. After induction of PH by monocrotaline, lung tissue was analysed histologically, by gene expression analysis and immunofluorescence labelling of ED-A domain containing fibronectin (ED-A+ Fn), B domain containing tenascin-C (B+ Tn-C) as well as alpha-smooth muscle actin (α-SMA). Serum concentrations of ED-A+ Fn were determined by ELISA. Systolic right ventricular pressure (RVPsys) values were significantly elevated in PH (n = 18; 75 ± 26.4 mmHg) compared to controls (n = 10; 29 ± 19.3 mmHg; p = 0.015). The histological sum-score was significantly increased in PH (8.0 ± 2.2) compared to controls (2.5 ± 1.6; p < 0.001). Gene expression analysis revealed relevant induction of several key genes of extracellular matrix remodelling. Increased protein deposition of ED-A+ Fn but not of B+ Tn-C and α-SMA in lung tissue was found in PH (2.88 ± 3.19 area%) compared to controls (1.32 ± 0.16 area%; p = 0.030). Serum levels of ED-A+ Fn were significantly higher in PH (p = 0.007) positively correlating with RVPsys (r = 0.618, p = 0.019). We here present a novel histological scoring system to assess lung tissue remodelling in PH. Gene expression analysis revealed induction of candidate genes involved in collagen matrix turnover, fibrosis and vascular remodelling. The stable increased tissue deposition of ED-A+ Fn in PH as well as its dynamics in serum suggests a role as a promising novel biomarker and potential therapeutic target.

Decrease of circulating myeloid dendritic cells in patients with chronic heart failure.

AIMS: Immunity and inflammation processes are known to be of central importance in chronic heart failure (CHF). Dendritic cells (DCs) are key players in adaptive immunity, yet their role in CHF is still unknown. The aim of this study was to investigate the circulating DCs in patients with compensated CHF. METHODS: Circulating myeloid (m) and plasmacytoid (p) DCs, as well as inflammatory cytokines interleukine (IL) 6 and IL10 were flow cytometrically analysed in peripheral blood of clinically compensated CHF patients with previously diagnosed dilated cardiomyopathy (DCM, n = 69), ischaemic cardiomyopathy (ICM, n = 49), as well as in unaffected controls (n = 51). Correlation analysis was performed between circulating DCs, cytokines and parameters of heart failure severity, such as NYHA class, the marker brain natriuretic peptide (BNP) and echocardiographic parameters of left ventricular function and dilation. RESULTS: Circulating mDCs were significantly decreased in all CHF patients, although more pronounced in DCM (0.14%, P < 0.001) than in ICM (0.18%, P = 0.043) compared to controls (0.2%). In contrast, no statistical changes were observed for pDCs. Circulating mDCs correlated with left ventricular ejection fraction (LVEF) and inversely with LV end-diastolic diameter (LVEDd) in all CHF patients. For DCM patients, an inverse correlation of mDCs with BNP was additionally observed. Circulating mDCs correlated inversely with IL6 and IL10 in all CHF patients. With the exception of IL-6 and NYHA class of DCM patients, cytokines did not significantly correlate with heart failure parameters. CONCLUSIONS: Blood mDCs are decreased in CHF patients. The reduction correlates with the severity of their HF.

Hypobaric hypoxia in 3000 m altitude leads to a significant decrease in circulating plasmacytoid dendritic cells in humans.

INTRODUCTION: Hypoxia is known to affect the immune system. It leads to an increase in pro-inflammatory cytokines such as interleukin-6 and influences the number of different inflammatory cells. This study investigates the effect of hypoxia on the number of different subsets of circulating human dendritic cells (DCs) as professional antigen-presenting cells. METHODS: The number of circulating DCs was determined via Fluorescence activated cell sorting analysis in peripheral blood of 17 healthy volunteers (age 35.9±2.6 years) in normoxia (baseline, BL), hypoxia (altitude 3000 m, alpine passive escalation), and again normoxia (follow-up, FU). RESULTS: Exposure to hypobaric hypoxia in high altitude, 3000 m, led to a significant decrease in the participants' oxygen saturation, and an increase in the breathing frequency whereas blood pressure and heart rate were not significantly altered. FACS analysis revealed a significant hypoxia induced decrease in circulating plasmacytoid (p) DCs compared to baseline levels (BL: 0.10 [0.08-0.18] % of white blood cell count (WBC), 3000 m: 0.03 [0.02-0.06] % WBC, p < 0.001). During follow up, again a significant reconstitution of circulating pDCs was observed (FU: 0.16±[0.11-0.26] % WBC, p = 0.0013). CONCLUSION: Hypobaric hypoxia caused by exposure to altitude results in a significant reduction in the number of circulating pDCs.

Increased Number of Mast Cells in Atherosclerotic Lesions Correlates with the Presence of Myeloid but not Plasmacytoid Dendritic Cells as well as Pro-inflammatory T Cells.

BACKGROUND: Atherosclerosis is an inflammatory disease of the vessel wall promoted by different immune cells and inflammatory mediators. METHODS: In this study, 26 human plaques and 12 control vessels without atherosclerosis were immunohistochemically stained to analyze the emergence of mast cells dependent on plaque morphology and to correlate mast cell occurrence with the emergence of myeloid as well as plasmacytoid dendritic cells. Also, mast cell emergence was correlated with the number of pro-inflammatory T cells. For this, plaques were classified as stable or unstable according to established histological criteria. RESULTS: As expected, atherosclerotic lesions showed significantly higher numbers of tryptase+, chymase+, and cathepsin G+ mast cells compared to control vessels, particularly in lesions with unstable morphology. As a novel finding, we detected significant correlations between mast cells and myeloid dendritic cells (fascin, CD83, r > 0.3, p < 0.01), but not plasmacytoid dendritic cells (CD123, CD304). Also, we observed significant correlations of mast cells and different subgroups of pro-inflammatory T cells (CD3, CD8, CD161, CD25; r > 0.35, p < 0.05). CONCLUSIONS: Overall, the higher number of mast cells in plaques, particularly with unstable morphology, suggests that mast cells might be involved in the progression of atherosclerosis. The correlation of mast cells with other immune cells that are pivotal in atherogenesis, e.g., myeloid dendritic cells and pro-inflammatory T cells, also suggests an interplay leading to plaque destabilization. Therefore, modulating local mast cell function and invasion into the plaque might be a therapeutic tool for plaque stabilization.

Decrease in circulating plasmacytoid dendritic cells during short-term systemic normobaric hypoxia.

BACKGROUND: During exposure to high altitude, the immune system is altered. During hypoxia, an increase in interleukin (IL)-6 and high sensitivity C-reactive protein (hs-CRP), and an increase in natural killer cells and decrease in T cells in blood was shown. However, the impact of hypoxia on dendritic cells has not been investigated yet. MATERIAL AND METHODS: Twelve healthy volunteers were subjected to a transient normobaric hypoxia for 6·5 h simulating an oxygen concentration at 5500 m. During exposure to hypoxia, blood samples were collected and analysed by flow cytometrical cell sorting (FACS) for circulating myeloid (mDCs) and plasmacytoid (pDCs) DCs. Serum levels of IL-6 and tumour necrosis factor (TNF)-α were analysed. In a cell culture hypoxia chamber, blood samples were subjected to the same hypoxia and analysed regarding DCs. RESULTS: Exposure to normobaric hypoxia induced a significant decrease in circulating pDCs about 45% (P = 0·001) but not of mDC compared to baseline normoxia. Furthermore, we observed a significant increase of TNF-α about 340% (P = 0·03) and of IL-6 about 286% (P = 0·002). In cell culture experiments exposure of blood to hypoxia led to no significant changes in DCs, so that a direct cytotoxic effect was excluded. During hypoxia, we observed a transient increase in stromal-derived factor 1 (SDF-1) which is important for pDC tissue recruitment. CONCLUSIONS: We show a significant decrease in circulating pDCs during hypoxia in parallel to a pro-inflammatory response. Further studies are necessary to evaluate whether the decrease in circulating pDCs might be the result of an enhanced tissue recruitment.

Impact of Systemic Normobaric Short-Term Hypoxia on Pro-Inflammatory and Anti-Inflammatory Cytokines in Healthy Volunteers.

BACKGROUND: Hypoxia has been shown to induce a microvascular inflammation, affect the cell count of different types of immune cells, and influence cytokine production in blood. In the present study, serum levels of different cytokines were investigated to achieve insights into the effect of hypoxia on the balance of inflammation and anti-inflammation. METHODS: Pro- (IL-8) and anti-inflammatory (IL-10) cytokines were measured in an experiment exposing 12 healthy subjects (35 ± 9 yr, 176 ± 7 cm, 73 ± 16 kg, BMI 23 ± 4 kg/m2) to systemic, normobaric hypoxia in a hypoxic chamber. In this chamber oxygen was replaced by nitrogen to reach an oxygen content of 9.9% that is equivalent to an altitude of 5500 m during 7 hours. Serum cytokine concentrations were analyzed using ELISA. RESULTS: As expected, a significant decrease in peripheral oxygen saturation accompanied by a significant increase in breathing frequency and heart rate were observed in the subjects during hypoxia compared to baseline (BL). Blood leukocytes increased slightly, but significantly in the course of hypoxia. A statistically significant increase was measured for IL-8 serum level during hypoxia compared to the baseline measurements (BL 12.0 ± 1.1 pg/mL, hypoxia 16.2 ± 1.6 pg/mL, p = 0.006). For IL-10 a statistically significant decrease was measured upon hypoxia compared to baseline (BL 11.6 [6.2 - 43.31 pg/mL, hypoxia 8.3 [4.4 - 26.6] pg/mL, p = 0.016). Additionally, a significant inverse correlation was found comparing the anti-inflammatory cytokine IL-10 with the pro-inflammatory cytokine IL-8 (r = -0.69, p < 0.001). CONCLUSIONS: The results of this study demonstrate a hypoxia-induced increase in pro- and decrease in anti-inflammatory cytokines reflecting an increased pro-inflammatory status during hypoxia.

Intravital microscopy - A novel tool in characterizing congestive heart failure in experimental autoimmune myocarditis.

AIMS: Experimental autoimmune myocarditis (EAM) is a widely used murine model, in which cellular myocardial infiltration resembles human viral myocarditis. Although myocarditis can be readily assessed on histology, heart failure has not been fully characterized, as there are limitations in available markers and difficulties in hemodynamic measurements, especially on small rodents. We investigated whether intravital microscopy of the microcirculation can be used to characterize heart failure in EAM. METHODS: BALB/c mice (n = 10 versus n = 5 controls) were immunized with alpha myosin heavy chain peptide and myocarditis was confirmed on hematoxylin-eosin (HE) histology on day 21. Echocardiography assessment included ejection fraction (EF), fractional shortening (FS), mitral valve doppler, left-ventricular end-diastolic diameter (LVEDd) and diastolic intra-ventricular septum thickness (IVSd). Microcirculatory analysis was performed using a sidestream dark field (SDF) microcirculation camera. The proportion of perfused vessels (PPV) and perfused vessel density (PVD) were recorded on the intestinal mucosa of the anaesthesized mice. RESULTS: Immunized mice developed EAM with typical cellular infiltration (p < 0.003), left-ventricular hypertrophy (IVSd, p = 0.027) and diastolic dysfunction (E/A, p = 0.028) without significant EF reduction (p = 0.845) or LV dilation (p = 0.854). SDF recording consisted mainly of venules, as capillaries were too small. PPV and PVD were significantly increased in EAM mice (p 0.001 and 0.01 respectively) and correlated significantly with the histological myocarditis severity score (r = 0.557, p = 0.03 and r = 0.57, p = 0.025 respectively), whereas PPV but not PVD correlated with IVSd (r = 0.588, p = 0.02) and E/A ratio (r = 0.703, p = 0.003). CONCLUSIONS: Intravital microscopy can be used to characterize post-capillary intestinal perfusion of EAM mice. Thus we show a congestion of intestinal venules in EAM which correlates to the severity of myocarditis.