Diagnostic Yield of Whole Exome Sequencing for Adults with Ataxia: a Brazilian Perspective.

Previous studies using whole exome sequencing (WES) have shown that a significant proportion of adult patients with undiagnosed ataxia in European and North American cohorts have a known genetic cause. Little is known about the diagnostic yield of WES in non-Caucasian ataxic populations. Herein, we used WES to investigate a Brazilian cohort of 76 adult patients with idiopathic ataxia previously screened for trinucleotide expansions in known ataxia genes. We collected clinical and radiological data from each patient. WES was performed following standard procedures. Only variants labeled as pathogenic or likely pathogenic according to American college of medical genetics and genomics (ACMG) criteria were retrieved. We determined the diagnostic yield of WES for the whole cohort and also for subgroups defined according to presence or not of pyramidal signs, peripheral neuropathy, and cerebellar atrophy. There were 41 women and 35 men. Mean age at testing was 48 years. Pyramidal signs, peripheral neuropathy, tremor, and cerebellar atrophy were found in 38.1%, 13.1%, 10.5%, and 68.3% of all subjects, respectively. Diagnostic yield of WES was 35.5%. Thirty-six distinct mutations were found in 20 different genes, determining the diagnosis of 18 autosomal recessive and 9 autosomal dominant ataxias. SACS and SPG7 were the most frequently found underlying genes. WES performed better in the subgroup with vs the subgroup without spasticity (p = 0.005). WES was diagnostic in 35.5% of cases of the Brazilian cohort of ataxia cases. These results have implications for diagnosis, genetic counseling and eventually treatment.

Investigation of the RFC1 Repeat Expansion in a Canadian and a Brazilian Ataxia Cohort: Identification of Novel Conformations.

A biallelic pentanucleotide expansion in the RFC1 gene has been reported to be a common cause of late-onset ataxia. In the general population, four different repeat conformations are observed: wild type sequence AAAAG (11 repeats) and longer expansions of either AAAAG, AAAGG or AAGGG sequences. However only the biallelic AAGGG expansions were reported to cause late-onset ataxia. In this study, we aimed to assess the prevalence and nature of RFC1 repeat expansions in three cohorts of adult-onset ataxia cases: Brazilian (n = 23) and Canadian (n = 26) cases that are negative for the presence of variants in other known ataxia-associated genes, as well as a cohort of randomly selected Canadian cases (n = 128) without regard to a genetic diagnosis. We identified the biallelic AAGGG expansion in only one Brazilian family which presented two affected siblings, and in one Canadian case. We also observed two new repeat conformations, AAGAG and AGAGG, which suggests the pentanucleotide expansion sequence has a dynamic nature. To assess the frequency of these new repeat conformations in the general population, we screened 163 healthy individuals and observed the AAGAG expansion to be more frequent in cases than in control individuals. While additional studies will be necessary to asses the pathogenic impact of biallelic genotypes that include the novel expanded conformations, their occurrence should nonetheless be examined in future studies.

Cognitive and Psychiatric Evaluation in SYNE1 Ataxia.

SYNE1 gene mutations were identified as a cause of late-onset pure cerebellar syndrome. Non-cerebellar symptoms, including cognitive impairment, were already described in this condition. The aim of this study was to perform a detailed cognitive and psychiatric description of patients with SYNE1 gene mutations. We performed neuropsychological and psychiatric evaluations of six patients with SYNE1 ataxia and compared their performance with 18 normal controls paired for age and education level. SYNE1 ataxia patients present cognitive dysfunction, characterized by impairment in attention and processing speed domains. Otherwise, the psychiatric assessment reported low levels of overall behavioral symptoms with only some minor anxiety-related complaints. Although this is a small sample of patients, these results suggest that SYNE1 ataxia patients may represent a model to investigate effects of cerebellar degeneration in higher hierarchical cognitive functions. For further studies, abstract thinking impairment in schizophrenia may be related to dysfunction in cerebellum pathways.

Multimodal neuroimaging analysis in patients with SYNE1 Ataxia.

BACKGROUND: The gene SYNE1 is highly expressed in the cerebellum and its dysfunction is related to an autosomal recessive ataxia (SYNE1-ataxia). The disease was firstly considered a pure cerebellar ataxia however, recent studies have described a broader clinical presentation, including motor neuron disease symptoms. OBJECTIVES: To investigate cerebellar and potential extra-cerebellar changes in SYNE1-ataxia using multimodal neuroimaging analyses. METHODS: Six patients completed clinical and imaging exams, and were compared to age-gender-matched healthy controls. Gray matter was analyzed using FreeSurfer and CERES for brain and cerebellum, respectively. White matter was analyzed with DTI-TBSS while we used SpineSeg for spinal cord analysis. RESULTS: We found significantly reduced cortical thickness (p < 0.05, FDR-corrected) in primary and association cortices, and volume reduction in subcortical structures, brainstem and cerebellum. White matter was found disrupted in both brain and cerebellum (p < 0.05, FWE-corrected). These results are consistent with the expression of the SYNE1 mRNA and its encoded protein in the brain. We failed to demonstrate spinal cord changes. CONCLUSIONS: SYNE1-ataxia is, therefore, a relatively common cause of recessive ataxia characterized by complex multisystemic neurostructural changes consistent with the phenotypic heterogeneity and neuroimaging configures a potential marker of the disease.

Alteration of ganglioside biosynthesis responsible for complex hereditary spastic paraplegia.

Hereditary spastic paraplegias (HSPs) form a heterogeneous group of neurological disorders. A whole-genome linkage mapping effort was made with three HSP-affected families from Spain, Portugal, and Tunisia and it allowed us to reduce the SPG26 locus interval from 34 to 9 Mb. Subsequently, a targeted capture was made to sequence the entire exome of affected individuals from these three families, as well as from two additional autosomal-recessive HSP-affected families of German and Brazilian origins. Five homozygous truncating (n = 3) and missense (n = 2) mutations were identified in B4GALNT1. After this finding, we analyzed the entire coding region of this gene in 65 additional cases, and three mutations were identified in two subjects. All mutated cases presented an early-onset spastic paraplegia, with frequent intellectual disability, cerebellar ataxia, and peripheral neuropathy as well as cortical atrophy and white matter hyperintensities on brain imaging. B4GALNT1 encodes ß-1,4-N-acetyl-galactosaminyl transferase 1 (B4GALNT1), involved in ganglioside biosynthesis. These findings confirm the increasing interest of lipid metabolism in HSPs. Interestingly, although the catabolism of gangliosides is implicated in a variety of neurological diseases, SPG26 is only the second human disease involving defects of their biosynthesis.

Expanding the differential diagnosis of inherited neuropathies with non-uniform conduction: Andermann syndrome.

Uniform conduction slowing has been considered a characteristic of inherited demyelinating neuropathies. We present an 18-year-old girl, born from first cousins, that presented a late motor and psychological development, cerebellar ataxia, facial diplegia, abnormal eye movement, scoliosis, and corpus callosum agenesis, whose compound muscle action potentials were slowed and dispersed. A mutation was found on KCC3 gene, confirming Andermann syndrome, a disease that must be included in the differential diagnosis of inherited neuropathies with non-uniform conduction slowing.

A closer look at the history and genetics of Tourette syndrome

Tourette syndrome (TS) was named after Georges Albert Edouard Brutus Gilles de la Tourette, who made its first formal description at the end of the 19th century. Nevertheless, some evidence indicates the disorder may have been recognised at least two thousand years ago. Tic like behaviours were recorded by Aretaeus of Cappadocia and several centuries later by Sprenger and Kraemer, followed by other descriptions. The English writer Samuel Johnson, author of the first English Language Dictionary, showed repetitive body twitches, facial grimaces, barks and grunts, among other tics. He was observed in situations such as going in or out at a door using a certain number of steps, from a certain point, which indicated he had also obsessive-compulsive behaviour. There was some evidence of features of TS as well as co-morbid conditions such as hyperactivity, obsessive-compulsive behaviour or rage attacks in other famous artists and world leaders. Some authors have even proposed that the creative, determined, competitive, and persistent nature of certain people may be related to the presence of TS. Clinicians have observed that some patients are particularly sensitive to the feelings and experiences of others, and more prone to outside stimuli. In this way, empathy could be a common quality in these patients. In 1825, Jean Marc Gaspard Itard made the first known medical description of TS based on two cases, one of which was later followed by Jean-Martin Charcot. In 1885 Gilles de la Tourette put together information from previous fragmented reports and wrote a complete and formal description, thus establishing a novel clinical entity. Behavioural abnormalities such as obsessions, compulsions, inattentiveness and hyperactivity, commonly observed in TS patients, were considered mental tics at the time. Current diagnostic criteria are very similar to Gilles de la Tourette's description. TS is characterized by the presence of multiple motor and one or more vocal tics. In this disorder, tics are not caused by the direct physiologic effects of a substance or a general medical condition. Tic symptomatology is persistent for over a year, and in this period, tics are not absent for more than three consecutive months. There is no exact consensus between the DSM-IV and the Tourette Syndrome Classification Study Group of whether the age of onset should be prior to 18 or 21 years of age, how cases of onset after 21 years should be diagnosed, and if marked distress or significant impairment caused by tics is necessary to define the condition as definite TS. However, the text revision of the DSM-IV (TR) no longer specifies that TS symptoms have to cause distress or impair the functioning of the patients. With respect to the age of onset, the ICD-10 Classification of Mental and Behavioural Disorders describes the onset almost always in childhood or adolescence, and in this way it would no longer exclude cases with later onset. Numerous studies confirmed in the 20th century that genetics plays an important role in the etiology of TS. Family studies proved that the disease runs in families. First-degree relatives of TS patients are indeed in greater risk for TS than the general population. Twin and adoption studies demonstrated that genes have an important role in the etiology of TS, and as much as 90% of the vulnerability to this syndrome could be affected by genes. In addition, environmental, epigenetic and even stochastic factors may affect the susceptibility to TS. At the molecular level, linkage in families and association in unrelated TS subjects have been the main methods used to search for vulnerability genes. Sequencing of almost the entire human genome made it possible to assess the gene expression of thousands of genes on a single chip; recent studies reported a preliminary specific profile in the blood of TS patients. If confirmed, this finding could be useful in the identification of genetic factors related with TS. Given the multi-factorial nature of TS, a thorough clinical description in large samples should be considered; besides association, linkage and sequencing studies, possible gene-gene and gene-environment interactions would also need to be analysed, as well as epigenetic factors, and gene expression patterns.

El síndrome de Gilles de la Tourette (SGT) se nombró asi en honor de Georges Albert Edouard Brutus Gilles de la Tourette, alumno de Charcot, quien realizó la primera descripción formal de esta entidad clínica a finales del siglo XIX. Sin embargo, hay evidencias que indican que probablemente el trastorno se había identificado de alguna manera desde hace por lo menos dos mil años. Areteo de Capadocia registró conductas similares a los tics, también descritas por Sprenger y Kraemer en el siglo XV y más adelante por otros. El escritor inglés Samuel Johnson, autor del primer Diccionario de la Lengua Inglesa, mostraba contorsiones en todo el cuerpo, muecas, ladridos y gruñidos, entre otros tics. Se le observaba entrando o saliendo por una puerta con un número determinado de pasos a partir de un punto dado, lo cual indica que también presentaba conducta obsesivo- compulsiva. Además, otros artistas y líderes mundiales han presentado características del SGT y de padecimientos comórbidos como el trastorno por déficit de atención e hiperactividad, el trastorno obsesivo-compulsivo o ataques de ira. Un grupo de autores ha llegado a considerar que la naturaleza creativa, determinada, competitiva y persistente en ciertas personas podría relacionarse con el SGT. Algunos especialistas del área médica han observado que ciertos pacientes con SGT son particularmente sensibles a los sentimientos y experiencias de otras personas y más propensos a los estímulos externos. Por lo tanto, la empatía podría ser una cualidad común en estos pacientes. En 1825, Jean Marc Gaspard Itard realizó la primera descripción médica conocida del SGT, basándose en dos casos, uno de los cuales fue estudiado más adelante por Charcot. En 1885, Gilles de la Tourette reunió fragmentos de información de reportes previos y redactó una descripción formal y completa del trastorno, con lo que estableció una nueva entidad clínica. Las anormalidades del tipo de obsesiones, compulsiones, inatención e hiperactividad se consideraban tics mentales en esa época. Los criterios diagnósticos actuales del SGT son muy similares a los publicados por Gilles de la Tourette. El SGT se caracteriza sobre todo por la presencia de dos o más tics motores y uno o más tics fónicos. En este trastorno, los tics no son causados por el efecto fisiológico directo de una droga o por una affeción médica general. La sintomatología de los tics persiste por más de un año y en este periodo los tics no se ausentan por más de tres meses consecutivos. No hay un consenso preciso entre el DSM-IV y el Grupo de Estudio de la Clasificación del Síndrome de Gilles de la Tourette en relación con la edad de inicio: si debe ser antes de los 18 o los 21 años, cómo deben considerarse casos de inicio posterior a los 21 años y si para definir un caso definitivo de SGT se requiere que la persona presente malestar o incapacidad importante a causa de los tics. Sin embargo, en el texto revisado del DSM-IV (TR) ya no se especifica que los síntomas del SGT deban causar necesariamente malestar o incapacidad en el funcionamiento diario de los pacientes. En cuanto a la edad de inicio, si la Clasificación de los Trastornos Mentales y de la Conducta (CIE-10) describe que la edad de inicio casi siempre es en la niñez o adolescencia, de esta manera ya no excluye la posibilidad de edades de inicio más avanzadas. Gracias a diversos estudios, durante el siglo XX se pudo confirmar que la genética es decisiva en la etiología del SGT. Por medio de estudios en familias se confirmó que el trastorno se concentra particularmente en ciertas familias. Los parientes en primer grado de un paciente con SGT se encuentran en mayor riesgo de presentar el trastorno que la población en general. Estudios realizados en pares de gemelos y personas adoptadas confirmaron que los genes tienen un peso importante en el aumento de la susceptibilidad al SGT. Se ha estimado que hasta 90% de la vulnerabilidad al trastorno podría estar afectada por los genes. Aunados a estos factores hereditarios que dependen directamente de la secuencia del ADN de nuestras células nucleadas, se encuentran otros factores que afectan en cierto grado la susceptibilidad al SGT, como los de tipo ambiental, epigenético o aleatorio. A nivel molecular, los principales diseños para el estudio del SGT y la búsqueda de genes de susceptibilidad han sido el enlace genético (linkage) en familias y los estudios de asociación en pacientes no emparentados. La secuenciación de prácticamente todo el genoma humano ha permitido, entre otras cosas, identificar la expresión de miles de genes en un solo chip. De acuerdo con estudios preliminares recientes, podría haber un patrón específico de expresión en sangre de pacientes con SGT. Si esto se llegara a confirmar, los hallazgos podrían emplearse para facilitar la identificación de factores genéticos de riesgo para el SGT. Tomando en cuenta la naturaleza multifactorial del SGT, se requiere además de estudios de enlace genético, asociación y secuenciación, análisis sobre interacciones de tipo gen-gen y gen-ambiente, así como la identificación de factores epigenéticos y de niveles de expresión genética en el SGT.

NF2 tumor suppressor gene: a comprehensive and efficient detection of somatic mutations by denaturing HPLC and microarray-CGH.

The NF2 tumor suppressor gene, located in chromosome 22q12, is involved in the development of multiple tumors of the nervous system, either associated with neurofibromatosis 2 or sporadic ones, mainly schwannomas and meningiomas. In order to evaluate the role of the NF2 gene in sporadic central nervous system (CNS) tumors, we analyzed NF2 mutations in 26 specimens: 14 meningiomas, 4 schwannomas, 4 metastases, and 4 other histopathological types of neoplasms. Denaturing high performance liquid chromatography (denaturing HPLC) and comparative genomic hybridization on a DNA microarray (microarray- CGH) were used as scanning methods for small mutations and gross rearrangements respectively. Small mutations were identified in six out of seventeen meningiomas and schwannomas, one mutation was novel. Large deletions were detected in six meningiomas. All mutations were predicted to result in truncated protein or in the absence of a large protein domain. No NF2 mutations were found in other histopathological types of CNS tumors. These results provide additional evidence that mutations in the NF2 gene play an important role in the development of sporadic meningiomas and schwannomas. Denaturing HPLC analysis of small mutations and microarray-CGH of large deletions are complementary, fast, and efficient methods for the detection of mutations in tumor tissues.

Frequency of the different mutations causing spinocerebellar ataxia (SCA1, SCA2, MJD/SCA3 and DRPLA) in a large group of Brazilian patients

Spinocerebellar ataxia type 1 (SCA1), spinocerebellar ataxia type 2 (SCA2) and Machado-Joseph disease or spinocerebellar ataxia type 3 (MJD/SCA3) are three distinctive forms of autosomal dominant spinocerebellar ataxia (SCA) caused by expansions of an unstable CAG repeat localized in the coding region of the causative genes. Another related disease, dentatorubropallidoluysian atrophy (DRPLA) is also caused by an unstable triplet repeat and can present as SCA in late onset patients. We investigated the frequency of the SCA1, SCA2, MJD/SCA3 and DRPLA mutations in 328 Brazilian patients with SCA, belonging to 90 unrelated families with various patterns of inheritance and originating in different geographic regions of Brazil. We found mutations in 35 families (39 percent), 32 of them with a clear autosomal dominant inheritance. The frequency of the SCA1 mutation was 3 percent of all patients; and 6 percent in the dominantly inherited SCAs. We identified the SCA2 mutation in 6 percent of all families and in 9 percent of the families with autosomal dominant inheritance. The MJD/SCA3 mutation was detected in 30 percent of all patients; and in the 44 percent of the dominantly inherited cases. We found no DRPLA mutation. In addition, we observed variability in the frequency of the different mutations according to geographic origin of the patients, which is probably related to the distinct colonization of different parts of Brazil. These results suggest that SCA may be occasionally caused by the SCA1 and SCA2 mutations in the Brazilian population, and that the MJD/SCA3 mutation is the most common cause of dominantly inherited SCA in Brazil.

Clinical and molecular characteristics of a brazilian family with spinocerebellar ataxia type 1

The spinocerebellar ataxias (SCAs) are a clinically and genetically heterogeneous group of late onset neurodegenerative disorders. To date, seven different genes causing autosomal dominant SCA have been mapped:SCA1,SCA2, Machado-Joseph disease(MJD)/SCA3,SCA4,SCA5,SCA7 and dentatorubropallidoluysian atrophy (DRPLA). Expansions of an unstable trinucleotide CAG repeat cause three of these disorders: SCA1, MJD/SCA3 and DRPLA. We studied one Brazilian family segregating an autosomal dominant type of SCA. A total of ten individuals were examined and tested for the presence of the SCA1, MJD and DRPLA mutations. Three individuals, one male and two females, were considered affected based on neurological examination; ages at onset were: 32, 36 and 41 years. The first complaint in all three patients was gait ataxia which progressed slowly over the years. Six individuals showed one allele containing an expanded CAG repeat in the SCA1 gene. The mean size of the expanded allele was 48.2 CAG units. Instability of the expanded CAG tract was seen in the two transmissions that were observed in this family. In both occasions there was a contraction of the CAG tract. Our study demonstrates that SCA1 occurs in the Brazilian population. In addition, our results stress the importance of molecular studies in the confirmation of diagnosis and for pre-symptomatic testing in SCAs.