Praseodymium and warming interactions in mussels: Comparison between observed and predicted results.

Being a crucial element for technological development, praseodymium (Pr) has been increasingly used, leading to a rise in its concentration in aquatic systems. However, its potential threats to organisms remain poorly understood. Besides contamination, organisms are also threatened by climate change-related factors, including warming. It is important to evaluate how climate change-related factors may influence the effects of contaminants. To address this, histopathological and biochemical analyses were performed in adult mussels of Mytilus galloprovincialis, following a 28-day exposure to Pr (10 µg/L) and warming (4 °C increase) separately, and in combination. Additionally, biochemical and physiological alterations were analysed in the sperm of mussels after 30-min exposure to the same treatments. Furthermore, it was used the Independent Action model to predict the interaction between Pr and warming. The results showed, in the case of adults exposed to Pr, an increase in superoxide dismutase (SOD) and glutathione S-transferases (GSTs) activities. However, it was insufficient, leading to histopathological injuries, redox imbalance, and cellular damage. In the case of sperm, Pr induced an increase of mitochondrial activity and respiration rate, in response to the increase in systemic metabolic rate and oxygen demand. Warming increased the metabolism, and induced redox imbalance and cellular damage in adults. In sperm, a rise in temperature induced lipid peroxidation and a decrease in velocity. Warming induced some alterations in how adult mussels responded to Pr, activating catalase instead of SOD, and in addition to GSTs, also activated carboxylesterases. However, it was not enough to avoid redox imbalance and cellular damage. In the case of sperm, the combination induced a decrease in H2O2 production, and higher oxygen demand, which prevented the decrease in motility and velocity. This study highlights the limitations of using models and emphasizes the importance of studying the impacts of emerging contaminants, such as rare earth elements, and their combination with climate change-related factors. Under environmental conditions, chronic exposure to the combined effect of different stressors might generate impacts at higher biological levels. This may affect organisms' respiratory and filtration capacity, nutrient absorption, defence capacity against infections or diseases, and sperm viability, ultimately resulting in reduced growth and reproduction, with consequences at the population level.

Effect of biodegradable polymers upon grazing activity of the sea urchin Paracentrotus lividus (Lmk) revealed by morphological, histological and molecular analyses.

In the last years biodegradable polymers (BPs) were largely used as real opportunity to solve plastic pollution. Otherwise, their wide use in commercial products, such as packaging sector, is causing a new pollution alarm, mainly because few data reported about their behaviour in the environment and toxicity on marine organisms. Our previous results showed that embryos of the sea urchin Paracentrotus lividus (Lmk) exposed to poly(ε-caprolactone) (PCL), poly(3-hydroxybutyrate) (PHB) and poly(lactic acid) (PLA) showed delay of their development and morphological malformations, also affecting at the molecular levels the expression of several genes involved in different functional responses. In the present work for the first time, we tested the effects of five microplastics (MPs) obtained from BPs such as PBS, poly(butylene succinate), PBSA, poly(butylene succinate-co-butylene adipate), PCL, PHB and PLA, upon grazing activity of the sea urchin revealed by: i. histological analysis seeing at the gonadic tissues; ii. morphological analysis of the deriving embryos; iii. molecular analyses on these embryos to detect variations of the gene expression of eighty-seven genes involved in stress response, detoxification, skeletogenesis, differentiation and development. All these results will help in understanding how MP accumulated inside various organs in the adult sea urchins, and more in general in marine invertebrates, could represent risks for the marine environment.

The role of warming in modulating neodymium effects on adults and sperm of Mytilus galloprovincialis.

The use of rare earth elements (REEs) has been increasing and one of the most used is neodymium (Nd). Being an emergent contaminant, its negative impacts are poorly understood. Aquatic organisms are also threatened by climate change-related factors, as is the case of warming, which can change the effects of REEs. Thus, the impacts of Nd, warming, and the combination of both stressors were studied in adult mussels and sperm of the species Mytilus galloprovincialis, after an exposure period of 28 days (adults) and 30 min (sperm). The effects were evaluated through the analysis of biochemical and histopathological alterations in adults and biochemical and physiological responses given by sperm. The results showed that mussels only activated their biotransformation capacity when exposed to the stressors acting alone, which was insufficient to avoid lipid peroxidation. Furthermore, warming (alone and combined with Nd) also produces damage to proteins. The digestive gland was the most sensitive organ to Nd, presenting several histopathological alterations. In the case of sperm, all stressors induced lipid peroxidation, a higher oxygen demand, and a decrease in velocity, even if the sperm viability was maintained. It seems that warming influenced the effects of Nd to some extent. The present findings contribute significantly to the field of REEs environmental toxicology by offering valuable insights into the impacts of Nd on various biological levels of mussels. Additionally, within the context of climate change, this study sheds light on how temperature influences the effects of Nd. The obtained results indicate that both stressors can potentially compromise the overall health of mussel populations, thereby affecting other species reliant on them for food and habitat. Moreover, this study highlights impaired sperm health, which could adversely affect their reproductive capacity and ultimately lead to population decline.

From the cellular to tissue alterations induced by two rare earth elements in the mussel species Mytilus galloprovincialis: Comparison between exposure and recovery periods.

The global effort to achieve carbon neutrality has led to an increased demand for renewable energy technologies and their raw materials, namely rare earth elements (REEs). These elements possess unique properties and are used in various applications. However, the increased use of REE-based technologies has resulted in higher amounts of electronic waste, leading to elevated REEs concentrations found in the aquatic environment, with poorly understood threats to wildlife. Praseodymium (Pr) and europium (Eu) are two REEs that, despite their potential environmental risks, have almost unknown effects on aquatic organisms. Therefore, the present study aimed to assess the impacts of different concentrations of Pr and Eu (0, 10, 20, 40, and 80 µg/L) in the mussel species Mytilus galloprovincialis, as well as their ability to recover from exposure to the highest concentration. Mussels accumulated both elements in a dose-dependent manner, with the accumulation of Pr being higher. Accompanying the increase of metabolism, mussels exposed to Pr not only enhanced the activity of the antioxidant enzymes superoxide dismutase (up to 40 µg/L) and glutathione reductase (at 80 µg/L) but also the activity of the biotransformation enzymes carboxylesterases (CbE's) and glutathione S-transferases (GSTs) (at 80 µg/L). Nevertheless, these defence mechanisms were not sufficient to prevent cellular damage. All the Eu concentrations induced cellular damage, despite an increase in the activity of biotransformation enzymes (CbE's and GSTs) in mussel tissue. According to the histopathology assessment, mussels were not able to recover after exposure to both elements and lower concentrations induced higher injuries in digestive tubules. This study highlights that exposure to Pr and Eu had adverse effects on M. galloprovincialis, even at the lowest tested concentration, which may eventually impact mussels' growth, reproductive capacity, and survival.

Exploring toxicological interactions in a changing sea: The case of the alkaloids caffeine and caulerpin.

The bisindolic alkaloid caulerpin (CAU) is a bioactive compound isolated from green algae of the genus Caulerpa that are highly invasive in the Mediterranean Sea. On the other side, the purine alkaloid caffeine (CAF) is one of the most globally consumed psychoactive substances and a widespread anthropogenic water pollutant. Both compounds display a large panel of biological properties and are well known to accumulate in the tissues of aquatic organisms and, in certain circumstances, co-occur in the human diet. On this premise, the present study aimed to investigate possible synergistic interactions between CAU and CAF by using the bivalve Mytilus galloprovincialis as a model organism. Mussels were exposed to CAF via medium while they were fed with food enriched with CAU. After treatments, biochemical analysis confirmed the toxic potential of CAF, with increased AChE activity and lipid peroxidation. Also, histopathological alterations were observed in the gills and digestive tubules. The NMR-based metabolomics analysis detected higher levels of free amino acids under CAF treatments. Conversely, the food administration of CAU did not affect the above toxicological biomarkers. In addition, we did not observe any cumulative effect between CAF and CAU toward increased cellular damage and neurotoxicity. On the other hand, a possible action of CAU in decreasing CAF toxicity could be hypothesized based on our results. This hypothesis is supported by the activity of CAU as an agonist of peroxisome proliferator-activated receptors (PPARs). PPARs mediate xenobiotic detoxification via cytochromes P450, which is involved in CAF metabolism. Overall, the results obtained not only rule out any cumulative adverse effects of CAF and CAU but also encourage further research to evaluate the possible use of CAU, a compound easily obtained through the valorization of biomass from invasive species, as a food additive to improve the clearance of xenobiotics.

Can temperature rise change the impacts induced by e-waste on adults and sperm of Mytilus galloprovincialis?

Nowadays, it is of utmost importance to consider climate change factors, such as ocean warming, since the risk of negative impacts derived from increased surface water temperature is predicted to be high to the biodiversity. The need for renewable energy technologies, to reduce greenhouse gas emissions, has led to the increasing use of rare earth elements (REEs). Dysprosium (Dy) is widely used in magnets, motors, electrical vehicles, and nuclear reactors, being considered a critical REE to technology due to its economic importance and high supply risk. However, the increasing use of this element contributes to the enrichment of anthropogenic REEs in aquatic systems. Nevertheless, the information on the potential toxicity of Dy is limited. Moreover, the effects of pollutants can be amplified when combined with climate change factors. Thus, this study aimed to assess the effects of Dy (10 µg/L) in the species Mytilus galloprovincialis under actual (17 °C) and predicted warming conditions (21 °C). The Dy concentration in contaminated mussels was similar between temperatures, probably due to the detoxification capacity in individuals under these treatments. The combined stressors affected the redox balance, but higher impacts were caused by Dy and warming acting alone. In terms of cellular damage, although Dy acting alone was prejudicial to mussels, warming and both stressors acting together induced higher levels of LPO and PC. The histopathological effects of Dy in the digestive tubules were independent of the temperature tested. Regarding effects on sperm, only warming induced cellular damage, while both stressors, alone and together, impaired sperm movement. Overall, this study highlights that warming might influence the effects induced by Dy, but greater impacts were caused by the element. Eventually, the tested stressors may have consequences on mussels' reproduction capacity as well as their growth, abundance, and survival.

Morphologic and genic effects of waste pollution on the reproductive physiology of Paracentrotus lividus lmk: a mesocosm experiment.

A considerable amount of coastal contamination is caused by wastes deriving from household and the degradation and the metabolism of plants and animals, even if our attention is commonly focused on industrial pollutants and contaminants. Waste pollutants are mainly represented by highly diluted soluble compounds and particles deriving from dead organisms. This complex combination, consisting of suspended particles and dissolved nutrients, has a significant impact on coastal planktonic and benthic organisms, also playing an active role in the global cycles of carbon. In addition, production practices are nowadays shifting towards recirculated aquaculture systems (RAS) and the genic responses of target organisms to the pollution deriving from animal metabolism are still scarcely addressed by scientific investigations. The reservoir of organic matter dissolved in the seawater is by far the least understood if compared to that on land, cause only a few compounds have been identified and their impacts on animals and plants are poorly understood. The tendency of these compounds to concentrate at interfaces facilitates the absorption of dissolved organic compound (DOC) onto suspended particles. Some DOC components are chemically combined with dissolved metals and form complexes, affecting the chemical properties of the seawater and the life of the coastal biota. In this research, we compared the reproductive performances of the common sea urchin Paracentrotus lividus cultured in open-cycle tanks to those cultured in a recirculating aquaculture system (RAS), where pollution progressively increased during the experiment due to animal escretions. Sea urchins were cultured for 7 months under these two conditions and their gametes were collected. Embryos resulting by in vitro fertilization were analyzed by Real Time qPCR to identify possible effects of pollution-induced stress. The fertility of sea urchins was evaluated, as well as the gonadosomatic indices and the histological features of gonads. Our results indicate that pollution due to excess of nutrients, event at sub-lethal concentrations, may hardly impact the reproductive potential of this key species and that chronic effects of stress are revealed by the analyses of survival rates and gene expression.

An alien metabolite vs. a synthetic chemical hazard: An ecotoxicological comparison in the Mediterranean blue mussel.

Bioactive natural products from marine invasive species may dramatically impact native communities, while many synthetic pharmaceutical drugs are released into the marine environment and have long-lasting harmful effects on aquatic life. Sometimes, metabolites from alien species and synthetic compounds share similar mechanisms of action, suggesting comparable ecotoxicological impacts. This applies to the alkaloid caulerpin (CAU) from the green algae Caulerpa cylindracea, highly invasive in the Mediterranean Sea, and to the synthetic lipid-lowering drug fenofibrate (FFB), both acting as agonists of peroxisome proliferator-activated receptors (PPARs). Analogies with FFB, which is widely considered hazardous to the aquatic environment, have led to concerns about the ecotoxicological potential of CAU. The problem has implications for public health as CAU is well known to enter the food web accumulating in fish of commercial importance. Here, we compared the effects of FFB and CAU through biochemical and histopathological analysis on a relevant bioindicator molluscan species, the mussel Mytilus galloprovincialis. Under laboratory conditions, mussels were fed with food enriched with CAU or FFB. After treatment, biochemical markers were analyzed revealing metabolic capacity impairments, cellular damage, and changes in acetylcholinesterase activity in mussels fed with FFB-enriched food. NMR-based metabolomic studies also showed significant alterations in the metabolic profiles of FFB-treated mussels. In addition, dietary administration of FFB produced morphological alterations in the mussels' gills and digestive tubules. Obtained results confirm that FFB is harmful to aquatic life and that its release into the environment should be avoided. Conversely, dietary treatment with CAU did not produce any significant alterations in the mussels. Overall, our results pave the way for the possible valorization of the huge biomass from one of the world's worst invasive species to obtain CAU, a natural product of interest in drug discovery.

Sub-lethal effects induced in Mytilus galloprovincialis after short-term exposure to sodium lauryl sulfate: Comparison of the biological responses given by mussels under two temperature scenarios.

Surfactants are among the most common PPCPs that reach coastal systems, being often used in large quantities in cleaning products such as detergents and soap powders. Sodium lauryl sulfate (SLS) is listed in this group of emerging contaminants. Previous studies have already demonstrated the presence of SLS in aquatic environments and the negative effects on organisms living there. However, with ocean acidification and warming predictions, SLS-induced impacts may differ from those currently known. In this context, the present study aimed to reproduce environmental conditions by assessing the release of substances over a short period and to understand the influence of a rapid increase in temperature on the impacts caused. The marine bivalve Mytilus galloprovincialis was exposed to 2.0 mg/L SLS at 17 °C and 21 °C for 7 days. To assess the possible biochemical changes resulting from the exposure of mussels to SLS, a series of biomarkers related to oxidative stress/damage, detoxification, and metabolic capacity were measured. The SLS accumulation in soft tissues was low (about 0.7 ng/g) at both temperatures. The results evidenced increased metabolic activity, especially in mussels exposed to SLS at 17 °C. An increase in protein content was also observed upon exposure to SLS and increased temperature compared to controls at 17 °C. Although no effects on antioxidant enzymes were observed, protein damage was recorded, especially at 21 °C. These findings confirmed that SLS induces toxic effects and predicted climate change factors may increase the impact on M. galloprovincialis.

Can temperature influence the impacts induced in Mytilus galloprovincialis by neodymium? Comparison between exposure and recovery periods.

Climate change-associated factors and pollutants, such as rare earth elements (REEs), have been identified as contributors to environmental changes. However, the toxicity resulting from the combination of these stressors has received little attention. Neodymium (Nd) is a REE that has been widely used, and this study aimed to evaluate the responses of Mytilus galloprovincialis to Nd exposure (10 µg/L), under actual (17 °C) and predicted warming conditions (21 °C), after fourteen days of exposure followed by fourteen days of recovery (without Nd), analyzing Nd accumulation, histopathological and biochemical alterations. The results showed that increased temperature and Nd exposure caused histopathological injuries in the gills. Contaminated mussels at 17 °C showed cellular damage, while at 21 °C, mussels were able to avoid cellular damage. After the recovery period, no improvements in gill's status were found and cellular damage was still present, highlighting the impacts caused by previous exposure to Nd.

The influence of salinity on the toxicity of remediated seawater.

Mercury (Hg) is one of the most hazardous pollutants, due to its toxicity, biological magnification and worldwide persistence in aquatic systems. Thus, new efficient nanotechnologies (e.g. graphene oxide functionalized with polyethyleneimine (GO-PEI)) have been developed to remove this metal from the water. Aquatic environments, in particular transitional systems, are also subjected to disturbances resulting from climate change, such as salinity shifts. Salinity is one of the most relevant factors that influences the distribution and survival of aquatic species such as mussels. To our knowledge, no studies assessed the ecotoxicological impairments induced in marine organisms exposed to remediate seawater (RSW) under different salinity levels. For this, the focus of the present study was to evaluate the effects of seawater previously contaminated with Hg and remediated with GO-PEI, using the species Mytilus galloprovincialis, maintained at three different salinities (30, 20 and 40). The results obtained demonstrated similar histopathological and metabolic alterations, oxidative stress and neurotoxicity in mussels under RSW treatment at stressful salinity conditions (20 and 40) in comparison to control salinity (30). On the other hand, the present findings revealed toxicological effects including cellular damage and histopathological impairments in mussels exposed to Hg contaminated seawater in comparison to non-contaminated ones, at each salinity level. Overall, these results confirm the high efficiency of GO-PEI to sorb Hg from water with no noticeable toxic effects even under different salinities, leading to consider it a promising eco-friendly approach to remediate contaminated water.

Behavioral, physiological and biochemical responses and differential gene expression in Mytilus galloprovincialis exposed to 17 alpha-ethinylestradiol and sodium lauryl sulfate.

Mixture of contaminants often determine biological responses of marine species, making difficult the interpretation of toxicological data. The pharmaceutical 17 alpha-ethinylestradiol (EE2) and the surfactant Sodium Lauryl Sulfate (SLS) commonly co-occur in the marine environment. This study evaluated the effects of EE2 (125.0 ng/L) and SLS (4 mg/L), acting individually and combined, in the mussel Mytilus galloprovincialis. Contaminated mussels closed their valves for longer periods than control ones, especially in the presence of both contaminants, with longer closure periods immediately after spiking compared to values obtained one day after spiking. Nevertheless, males and females increased their metabolism when in the presence of both contaminants (males) and SLS (females), and independently on the treatment males and females were able to activate their antioxidant and biotransformation defences. Although enhancing defences mussels still presented cellular damage and loss of redox balance, especially noticed in the presence of EE2 for males and SLS for females. Histopathological damage was found at mussel's gills in single and mixture exposure, and qPCR analysis revealed a clear estrogen receptor expression with no additive effect due to combined stressors. The results obtained highlight the harmful capacity of both contaminants but further research on this matter is needed, namely considering different climate change scenarios.

Effects of temperature on caffeine and carbon nanotubes co-exposure in Ruditapes philippinarum.

In the marine environment, organisms are exposed to a high and increasing number of different contaminants that can interact among them. In addition, abiotic factors can change the dynamics between contaminants and organisms, thus increasing or even decreasing the toxic effect of a particular compound. In this study, the effects of caffeine (CAF) and functionalized multi-walled carbon nanotubes (f-MWCNTs) induced in the clam Ruditapes philippinarum were evaluated, acting alone and in combination (MIX), under two temperature levels (18 and 21 °C). To assess the impact of such compounds, their interaction and the possible influence of temperature, biochemical and histopathological markers were investigated. The effects of f-MWCNTs and caffeine appear to be clearly negative at the control temperature, with lower protein content in contaminated clams and a significant decrease in their metabolism when both pollutants were acting in combination. Also, at control temperature, clams exposed to pollutants showed increased antioxidant capacity, especially when caffeine was acting alone, although cellular damages were still observed at CAF and f-MWCNTs treatments. Increased biotransformation capacity at 18 °C and MIX treatment may explain lower caffeine concentration observed. At increased temperature differences among treatments were not so evident as at 18 °C, with a similar biological pattern among contaminated and control clams. Higher caffeine accumulation at MIX treatment under warming conditions may result from clams' inefficient biotransformation capacity when exposed to increased temperatures.

Toxic impacts of rutile titanium dioxide in Mytilus galloprovincialis exposed to warming conditions.

Climate change is leading to a gradual increase in the ocean temperature, which can cause physiological and biochemical impairments in aquatic organisms. Along with the environmental changes, the presence of emerging pollutants such as titanium dioxide (TiO2) in marine coastal systems has also been a topic of concern, especially considering the interactive effects that both factors may present to inhabiting organisms. In the present study, it has been assessed the effects of the presence in water of particles of rutile, the most common polymorph of TiO2, in Mytilus galloprovincialis, under actual and predicted warming conditions. Organisms were exposed to different concentrations of rutile (0, 5, 50, 100 µg/L) at control (18 ± 1.0 °C) and increased (22 ± 1.0 °C) temperatures. Histopathological and biochemical changes were evaluated in mussels after 28 days of exposure. Histopathological examination revealed similar alterations on mussels' gills and digestive glands with increasing rutile concentrations at both temperatures. Biochemical markers showed that contaminated mussels have an unchanged metabolic capacity at 18 °C, which increased at 22 °C. Although antioxidant defences were activated in contaminated organisms at 22 °C, cellular damage was still observed. Overall, our findings showed that histopathological impacts occurred after rutile exposure regardless of the temperature, while biochemical alterations were only significantly noticeable when temperature was enhanced to 22 °C. Thus, this study demonstrated that temperature rise may significantly enhance the sensitivity of bivalves towards emerging pollutants.

Oxidative stress, metabolic and histopathological alterations in mussels exposed to remediated seawater by GO-PEI after contamination with mercury.

The modern technology brought new engineering materials (e.g. nanostructured materials) with advantageous characteristics such as a high capacity to decontaminate water from pollutants (for example metal(loid)s). Among those innovative materials the synthesis of nanostructured materials (NSMs) based on graphene as graphene oxide (GO) functionalized with polyethyleneimine (GO-PEI) had a great success due to their metal removal capacity from water. However, research dedicated to environmental risks related to the application of these materials is still non-existent. To evaluate the impacts of such potential stressors, benthic species can be a good model as they are affected by several environmental constraints. Particularly, the mussel Mytilus galloprovincialis has been identified by several authors as a bioindicator that responds quickly to environmental disturbances, with a wide spatial distribution and economic relevance. Thus, the present study aimed to evaluate the impacts caused in M. galloprovincialis by seawater previously contaminated by Hg and decontaminated using GO-PEI. For this, histopathological and biochemical alterations were examined. This study demonstrated that mussels exposed to the contaminant (Hg), the decontaminant (GO-PEI) and the combination of both (Hg + GO-PEI) presented an increment of histopathological, oxidative stress and metabolic alterations if compared to organisms under remediated seawater and control conditions The present findings highlight the possibility to remediate seawater with nanoparticles for environmental safety purposes.

Biochemical and histopathological impacts of rutile and anatase (TiO2 forms) in Mytilus galloprovincialis.

Titanium dioxide (TiO2) particles have been widely used in various industrial applications and consumer products. Due to their large production and use, they will eventually enter into aquatic environments. Once in the aquatic environment TiO2 particles may interact with the organisms and induce toxic effects. Since the most common crystallographic forms of TiO2 are rutile and anatase, the present study evaluated the effect of these two forms of TiO2 particles in Mytilus galloprovincialis. For this, mussels were exposed to different concentrations of rutile and anatase particles (0, 5, 50, 100 µg/L) for twenty-eight days. Ti concentrations, histopathological alterations and biochemical effects were evaluated. Similar Ti concentrations were found in mussels exposed to rutile and anatase, with the highest values in mussels exposed to the highest exposure concentration. Histopathological results demonstrated that both forms of TiO2 induced alterations on gills and digestive glands along the increasing exposure gradient. Biochemical markers showed that mussels exposed to rutile maintained their metabolic capacity (assessed by the activity of the Electron Transport System, ETS), while anatase increased the metabolism of mussels. Mussels exposed to rutile increased their detoxifying defences which, due to the low tested concentrations, were sufficient to avoid cellular damage. On the other hand, mussels exposed to anatase suffered cellular damages despite the increase of the antioxidant defences which may be related to the high ETS activity. Both rutile and anatase particles were toxic to M. galloprovincialis, being the highest oxidative stress exerted by the crystalline form anatase.

Ecotoxicological effects of lanthanum in Mytilus galloprovincialis: Biochemical and histopathological impacts.

Inappropriate processing and disposal of electronic waste contributes to the contamination of aquatic systems by various types of pollutants such as the rare-earth elements (REE) in which lanthanum (La) is included. Knowledge on the toxicity of these elements in marine organisms is still scarce when compared to other metals such as mercury (Hg) and arsenic (As). Therefore, this study aims to assess the toxicity of La on the mussel Mytilus galloprovincialis, considered a good bioindicator of aquatic pollution, through the analysis of metabolic, oxidative stress, neurotoxicity and histopathological markers. Organisms were exposed to different concentrations of La for a period of 28 days (0, 0.1, 1, 10 mg/L) under controlled temperature (18 °C ± 1.0) and salinity (30 ± 1) conditions. La concentrations in mussels increased in higher exposure concentrations. La exposure demonstrated a biochemical response in mussels, evidenced by lowered metabolism and accumulation of energy reserves, activation of the antioxidant defences SOD and GPx as well as the biotransformation enzymes GSTs, especially at intermediate concentrations. Despite oxidative stress being shown by a decrease in GSH/GSSG, oxidative damage was avoided as evidenced by lower LPO and PC levels. Inhibition of the enzyme AChE demonstrated the neurotoxicity of La in this species. Histopathological indices were significantly different from the control group, indicating impacts in gonads, gills and digestive glands of mussels due to La. These results show that La can be considered a risk for marine organisms and thus its discharge into the environment should be monitored.

Protein-losing gastropathy associated with cytomegalovirus infection in a child.

Protein-losing gastropathy is a rare entity. Unlike the disease in adults, it usually is benign and self-limited in children. The aetiological contribution of cytomegalovirus has been insufficiently documented and the immunological status of patients was rarely described in most reports. The authors report an 11-year-old boy with generalised oedema and hypoproteinemia. Upper endoscopy with biopsies showed marked hypertrophy of gastric folds and foveolar hyperplasia involving the body and fundus. The presence of cytomegalovirus in gastric tissue was well documented through identification of intranuclear inclusions, immunohistochemistry and PCR. Immunodeficiency was clearly ruled out. Protein-losing gastropathy should be considered in children with oedema and hypoproteinemia. The aetiological diagnosis should be confirmed by endoscopy-based methods.