B1-B2 transition in shock-compressed MgO.

Magnesium oxide (MgO) is a major component of the Earth's mantle and is expected to play a similar role in the mantles of large rocky exoplanets. At extreme pressures, MgO transitions from the NaCl B1 crystal structure to a CsCl B2 structure, which may have implications for exoplanetary deep mantle dynamics. In this study, we constrain the phase diagram of MgO with laser-compression along the shock Hugoniot, with simultaneous measurements of crystal structure, density, pressure, and temperature. We identify the B1 to B2 phase transition between 397 and 425 gigapascal (around 9700 kelvin), in agreement with recent theory that accounts for phonon anharmonicity. From 425 to 493 gigapascal, we observe a mixed-phase region of B1 and B2 coexistence. The transformation follows the Watanabe-Tokonami-Morimoto mechanism. Our data are consistent with B2-liquid coexistence above 500 gigapascal and complete melting at 634 gigapascal. This study bridges the gap between previous theoretical and experimental studies, providing insights into the timescale of this phase transition.

Evidence for Dissociation and Ionization in Shock Compressed Nitrogen to 800 GPa.

Triple bonding in the nitrogen molecule (N_{2}) is among the strongest chemical bonds with a dissociation enthalpy of 9.8 eV/molecule. Nitrogen is therefore an excellent test bed for theoretical and numerical methods aimed at understanding how bonding evolves under the influence of the extreme pressures and temperatures of the warm dense matter regime. Here, we report laser-driven shock experiments on fluid molecular nitrogen up to 800 GPa and 4.0 g/cm^{3}. Line-imaging velocimetry measurements and impedance matching method with a quartz reference yield shock equation of state data of initially precompressed nitrogen. Comparison with numerical simulations using path integral Monte Carlo and density functional theory molecular dynamics reveals clear signatures of chemical dissociation and the onset of L-shell ionization. Combining data along multiple shock Hugoniot curves starting from densities between 0.76 and 1.29 g/cm^{3}, our study documents how pressure and density affect these changes in chemical bonding and provides benchmarks for future theoretical developments in this regime, with applications for planetary interior modeling, high energy density science, and inertial confinement fusion research.

Structural complexity in ramp-compressed sodium to 480 GPa.

The properties of all materials at one atmosphere of pressure are controlled by the configurations of their valence electrons. At extreme pressures, neighboring atoms approach so close that core-electron orbitals overlap, and theory predicts the emergence of unusual quantum behavior. We ramp-compress monovalent elemental sodium, a prototypical metal at ambient conditions, to nearly 500 GPa (5 million atmospheres). The 7-fold increase of density brings the interatomic distance to 1.74 Å well within the initial 2.03 Å of the Na+ ionic diameter, and squeezes the valence electrons into the interstitial voids suggesting the formation of an electride phase. The laser-driven compression results in pressure-driven melting and recrystallization in a billionth of a second. In situ x-ray diffraction reveals a series of unexpected phase transitions upon recrystallization, and optical reflectivity measurements show a precipitous decrease throughout the liquid and solid phases, where the liquid is predicted to have electronic localization. These data reveal the presence of a rich, temperature-driven polymorphism where core electron overlap is thought to stabilize the formation of peculiar electride states.

Nanosecond X-ray diffraction of shock-compressed superionic water ice.

Since Bridgman's discovery of five solid water (H2O) ice phases1 in 1912, studies on the extraordinary polymorphism of H2O have documented more than seventeen crystalline and several amorphous ice structures2,3, as well as rich metastability and kinetic effects4,5. This unique behaviour is due in part to the geometrical frustration of the weak intermolecular hydrogen bonds and the sizeable quantum motion of the light hydrogen ions (protons). Particularly intriguing is the prediction that H2O becomes superionic6-12-with liquid-like protons diffusing through the solid lattice of oxygen-when subjected to extreme pressures exceeding 100 gigapascals and high temperatures above 2,000 kelvin. Numerical simulations suggest that the characteristic diffusion of the protons through the empty sites of the oxygen solid lattice (1) gives rise to a surprisingly high ionic conductivity above 100 Siemens per centimetre, that is, almost as high as typical metallic (electronic) conductivity, (2) greatly increases the ice melting temperature7-13 to several thousand kelvin, and (3) favours new ice structures with a close-packed oxygen lattice13-15. Because confining such hot and dense H2O in the laboratory is extremely challenging, experimental data are scarce. Recent optical measurements along the Hugoniot curve (locus of shock states) of water ice VII showed evidence of superionic conduction and thermodynamic signatures for melting16, but did not confirm the microscopic structure of superionic ice. Here we use laser-driven shockwaves to simultaneously compress and heat liquid water samples to 100-400 gigapascals and 2,000-3,000 kelvin. In situ X-ray diffraction measurements show that under these conditions, water solidifies within a few nanoseconds into nanometre-sized ice grains that exhibit unambiguous evidence for the crystalline oxygen lattice of superionic water ice. The X-ray diffraction data also allow us to document the compressibility of ice at these extreme conditions and a temperature- and pressure-induced phase transformation from a body-centred-cubic ice phase (probably ice X) to a novel face-centred-cubic, superionic ice phase, which we name ice XVIII2,17.

Response to Comment on "Insulator-metal transition in dense fluid deuterium".

In their comment, Desjarlais et al claim that a small temperature drop occurs after isentropic compression of fluid deuterium through the first-order insulator-metal transition. We show that their calculations do not correspond to the experimental thermodynamic path, and that thermodynamic integrations with parameters from first-principles calculations produce results in agreement with our original estimate of the temperature drop.

Insulator-metal transition in dense fluid deuterium.

Dense fluid metallic hydrogen occupies the interiors of Jupiter, Saturn, and many extrasolar planets, where pressures reach millions of atmospheres. Planetary structure models must describe accurately the transition from the outer molecular envelopes to the interior metallic regions. We report optical measurements of dynamically compressed fluid deuterium to 600 gigapascals (GPa) that reveal an increasing refractive index, the onset of absorption of visible light near 150 GPa, and a transition to metal-like reflectivity (exceeding 30%) near 200 GPa, all at temperatures below 2000 kelvin. Our measurements and analysis address existing discrepancies between static and dynamic experiments for the insulator-metal transition in dense fluid hydrogen isotopes. They also provide new benchmarks for the theoretical calculations used to construct planetary models.

Crystal structure and equation of state of Fe-Si alloys at super-Earth core conditions.

The high-pressure behavior of Fe alloys governs the interior structure and dynamics of super-Earths, rocky extrasolar planets that could be as much as 10 times more massive than Earth. In experiments reaching up to 1300 GPa, we combine laser-driven dynamic ramp compression with in situ x-ray diffraction to study the effect of composition on the crystal structure and density of Fe-Si alloys, a potential constituent of super-Earth cores. We find that Fe-Si alloy with 7 weight % (wt %) Si adopts the hexagonal close-packed structure over the measured pressure range, whereas Fe-15wt%Si is observed in a body-centered cubic structure. This study represents the first experimental determination of the density and crystal structure of Fe-Si alloys at pressures corresponding to the center of a ~3-Earth mass terrestrial planet. Our results allow for direct determination of the effects of light elements on core radius, density, and pressures for these planets.