The golden jackal (Canis aureus): A new host for Echinococcus multilocularis and Trichinella britovi in Switzerland.

INTRODUCTION: The golden jackal (Canis aureus) is a wild canid new to Switzerland. It is an officially monitored species and all deceased individuals are submitted for post-mortem examination to collect baseline health data. This includes parasitological examinations, with an emphasis on zoonotic, reportable infections, such as those caused by Trichinella spp. or Echinococcus spp. From 2016 to 2021, five golden jackals originating from four Swiss cantons were submitted for full post-mortem examination. In one case only organ samples were available, and therefore parasitological examination was not possible. Parasite stages recovered during necropsy, as well as by routine coproscopical techniques, were morphologically identified. Taeniid eggs and adult tapeworms were processed for molecular species identification. Additionally, tongue and diaphragm were analysed for Trichinella spp. by the artificial digestion technique followed by multiplex-PCR in positive cases. Of the four jackals investigated for parasites, hookworm eggs were detected in one animal, both adult worms and eggs of Echinococcus multilocularis were present in another case, and one animal was free of parasites. Eggs of E. multilocularis as well as eggs of Toxocara canis and sporocysts of Sarcocystis sp. were detected in the intestinal content, and Trichinella britovi larvae were found in the muscle samples of the last case. The health monitoring programme in place for protected carnivores in Switzerland allowed us to add the golden jackal to the list of hosts for the endemic zoonotic parasites E. multilocularis and T. britovi in this country. Hunters, farmers, and other persons who could come in contact with golden jackals should be aware of the associated health risk and handle faeces and carcasses with caution.

INTRODUCTION: Le chacal doré (Canis aureus) est un canidé sauvage nouvellement présent en Suisse. Il s'agit d'une espèce officiellement surveillée et tous les individus morts sont soumis à un examen post-mortem afin de recueillir des données sanitaires de base. Cela inclut un examen parasitologique mettant l'accent sur les infections zoonotiques à déclaration obligatoire, telles que celles causées par Trichinella spp. ou Echinococcus spp. De 2016 à 2021, cinq chacals dorés originaires de quatre cantons suisses ont été soumis à un examen post-mortem complet. Dans un cas, seuls des échantillons d'organes ont été envoyés, l'examen parasitologique n'a pas été possible pour cet animal. Les stades parasitaires trouvés lors de l'examen pathologique et de la coprologie de routine ont été identifiés morphologiquement. Les espèces de ténias (œufs et stades adultes) ont été déterminées par des techniques de biologie moléculaire. En outre, la recherche de Trichinella spp. a été effectuée sur du tissu musculaire lingual et diaphragmatique par la technique de digestion artificielle suivie d'une PCR multiplex dans les cas positifs. Sur les quatre chacals ayant fait l'objet d'une recherche de parasites, des œufs d'ankylostomes ont été détectés chez un animal, des vers adultes et des œufs d'Echinococcus multilocularis étaient présents chez un autre animal, et aucun parasite n'a été trouvé dans un autre cas. Chez le dernier cas, des œufs d'E. multilocularis ainsi que des œufs de Toxocara canis et des sporocystes de Sarcocystis sp. ont été détectés dans le contenu intestinal, et des larves de Trichinella britovi ont été trouvées dans les échantillons de muscle. Le programme de surveillance sanitaire mis en place pour les carnivores protégés en Suisse a donc permis d'ajouter le chacal doré à la liste des hôtes des parasites zoonotiques endémiques E. multilocularis et T. britovi. Les chasseurs, agriculteurs et autres personnes susceptibles d'entrer en contact avec le chacal doré doivent être conscients du risque sanitaire associé et manipuler les fèces et les carcasses avec précaution.

Causes of mortality and morbidity in free-ranging mustelids in Switzerland: necropsy data from over 50 years of general health surveillance.

BACKGROUND: Although mustelids occur worldwide and include a wide range of species, little is known about the diseases affecting them. Mustelids have regularly been submitted for post mortem investigation in the framework of the program for general wildlife health surveillance in Switzerland, which has been in place for nearly 60 years. We performed a retrospective analysis of the necropsy reports on mustelids submitted to the diagnostic service of the University of Bern. The aims of this study were to present an overview of the causes of mortality and morbidity observed in these carnivores, to assess differences among species, to assess changes in disease detection over the study period, and to describe the pathology of selected diseases. RESULTS: Five hundred and sixty-six reports from 1958 to 2015 were analyzed. Most animals were stone martens (Martes foina, 46%) and badgers (Meles meles, 44%); the remaining species were polecats (Mustela putorius, 4.7%), pine martens (Martes martes, 2%), stoats (Mustela erminea, 1.4%), weasels (Mustela nivalis, 0.8%) and otters (Lutra lutra, 0.3%). Infectious diseases (n = 262) were frequent and were mostly bacterial or viral; non-infectious conditions (n = 169) were less common and were mostly traumatic or due to metabolic disorders. The most frequent diagnoses included distemper (75% were badgers), amyloidosis (96% were martens), bacterial respiratory infections (all mustelids), biting lice (badgers only) and pulmonary and gastro-intestinal helminths (all species). Less frequent diseases included histoplasmosis (badgers only), aspergillosis, toxoplasmosis, hepatozoonosis, and sarcoptic mange. Lesions due to infection with distemper virus were primarily appreciated in the respiratory tract and central nervous system; they presented species-specific characteristics such as necrosis in the ependyma in badgers and absence of syncytia in stone martens. Amyloidosis in martens was multisystemic in most cases and included both AA and AL amyloidosis; the main macroscopic change was severe splenomegaly. CONCLUSION: Infectious diseases were the most frequent causes of morbidity and mortality of mustelids, with marked species-specific differences. Lung and skin were the most commonly affected organs. Contagious diseases such as canine distemper, sarcoptic mange and rabies in mustelids showed a similar temporal pattern as in red foxes (Vulpes vulpes), suggesting pathogen spillovers from foxes to mustelids.

Fatal leptospirosis in free-ranging Eurasian beavers (Castor fiber L.), Switzerland.

Leptospirosis was first diagnosed in free-ranging Eurasian beavers (Castor fiber L.) in Switzerland in 2010. Pathologic, serologic, molecular and epidemiologic analyses were carried out on 13 animals submitted for necropsy from 2010 through 2014. Typical lesions included alveolar haemorrhages in the lungs, tubular degeneration and interstitial nephritis in the kidneys. Microscopic agglutination test results were positive for serogroups Icterohaemorrhagiae, Australis, Autumnalis and Sejroe. Molecular analysis identified four distinct profiles belonging to serovar Icterohaemorrhagiae or Copenhageni. The severity and features of the lesions were consistent with a fatal disease associated with leptospires similarly to what has been reported in other animals and humans. The spatiotemporal occurrence of leptospirosis in beavers suggested an upstream spread of the bacteria and coincided with an increased incidence of leptospirosis in dogs and a case cluster in humans. However, an epidemiologic link among beaver cases and among species was not supported neither by the serologic nor molecular data.

Proposed attributes of national wildlife health programmes.

Wildlife health is important for conservation, healthy ecosystems, sustainable development and biosecurity. It presents unique challenges for national programme governance and delivery because wildlife health not only crosses jurisdictional responsibilities and authorities but also inherently spans multiple sectors of expertise. The World Organisation for Animal Health (OIE) encourages its Members to have wildlife disease monitoring and notification systems. Where national wildlife health surveillance programmes do exist, they vary in scope and size. Evidence-based guidance is lacking on the critical functions and roles needed to meet the OIE's recommendations and other expectations of a national programme. A literature review and consultation with national wildlife health programme leaders identified five key attributes of national programmes: 1) being knowledge and science based; 2) fostering cross-nation equivalence and harmonisation; 3) developing partnerships and national coordination; 4) providing leadership and administration of national efforts; and 5) capacity development. Proposed core purposes include: 1) establishment and communication of the national wildlife health status; 2) leading national planning; 3) centralising information and expertise; 4) developing national networks leading to harmonisation and collaborations; 5) developing wildlife health workforces; and 6) centralising administration and management of national programmes. A national wildlife health programme should aim to identify, effectively communicate and manage the risk to or from a country's wildlife populations. It should generate the appropriate knowledge required to improve the effectiveness of wildlife policies and systems, including identifying and assessing emerging priorities, thus facilitating early warning, preparedness and preventive actions.

La santé de la faune sauvage a un impact important sur la préservation des espèces et d'écosystèmes sains, sur le développement durable et sur la biosécurité. Les défis sont nombreux et complexes pour les programmes nationaux de gouvernance et de mise en oeuvre car les responsabilités et les compétences juridictionnelles sont croisées et les secteurs d'expertise sont multiples. L'Organisation mondiale de la santé animale (OIE) encourage ses Membres à mettre en place des systèmes de notification et de surveillance des maladies de la faune sauvage. Les programmes existants sont de tailles et de compétences variables et les orientations prises concernant les fonctions indispensables pour répondre aux recommandations de l'OIE et à ce qui est attendu d'un programme national ne sont pas toujours déterminées sur une base scientifique. Une revue de la littérature et des consultations auprès de responsables des programmes nationaux de santé de la faune sauvage ont permis d'identifier cinq attributs à proposer pour ces programmes nationaux. Ces programmes doivent :1) fonctionner sur la base de données scientifiques ; 2) favoriser l'équivalence et l'harmonisation transnationales ; 3) développer des partenariats et une coordination à l'échelle nationale ; 4) encadrer et administrer les efforts nationaux ; et 5) assurer le renforcement des capacités. Les missions essentielles sont : 1) déterminer et rendre publique la situation sanitaire de la faune sauvage dans le pays ; 2) encadrer le plan national ; 3) centraliser l'information et l'expertise ; 4) développer les réseaux nationaux d'harmonisation et de collaboration ; 5) former des personnels compétents dans le domaine de la faune sauvage ; et 6) centraliser l'administration et la gestion des programmes nationaux. Les objectifs d'un programme national de santé de la faune sauvage sont d'identifier, de rendre publics et de gérer les risques pour les populations d'animaux sauvages ainsi que les risques générés par ces mêmes populations. Ces programmes doivent promouvoir les connaissances nécessaires pour améliorer l'efficacité des politiques et des systèmes applicables à la faune sauvage, en particulier l'identification et l'évaluation des nouvelles priorités afin de faciliter la mise en oeuvre de systèmes d'alerte précoce, de préparation aux urgences et d'action préventive.

La salud de los animales silvestres, tan importante para la conservación del medio, el buen funcionamiento de los ecosistemas, el desarrollo sostenible y la seguridad biológica, presenta singulares dificultades desde el punto de vista de la gobernanza y aplicación de programas nacionales, dado que la fauna silvestre no solo toca a múltiples responsabilidades y atribuciones jurisdiccionales sino que, por su propia naturaleza, convoca a una plétora de especialidades técnicas. La Organización Mundial de Sanidad Animal (OIE) alienta a sus Miembros a que se doten de sistemas de vigilancia y notificación de enfermedades de la fauna silvestre. Allí donde existen, los programas nacionales en la materia son muy variopintos en cuanto a sus dimensiones y alcance. Faltan pautas científicamente sólidas sobre las funciones y atribuciones básicas que se requieren para cumplir las recomendaciones de la OIE y otras expectativas a las que pueda responder un programa nacional. Tras efectuar un estudio bibliográfico y consultar a los directivos de programas nacionales en la materia, los autores determinaron cinco atributos clave que debe reunir todo programa nacional: 1) estar basado en el saber y la ciencia; 2) favorecer la equivalencia y la armonización entre naciones; 3) crear alianzas y mecanismos de coordinación nacional; 4) encabezar y administrar las actividades a escala nacional; y 5) desarrollar los medios de acción del país. Los objetivos básicos propuestos son: 1) determinar y dar a conocer la situación sanitaria de la fauna silvestre del país; 2) dirigir las labores de planificación a escala nacional; 3) centralizar la información y las competencias especializadas; 4) instituir redes nacionales que propicien la armonización y las iniciativas de colaboración; 5) desarrollar los recursos humanos dedicados a la sanidad de la fauna silvestre; y 6) centralizar la gestión y administración de los programas nacionales. Todo programa nacional de sanidad de la fauna silvestre debe responder a la finalidad de detectar, comunicar eficazmente y gestionar los riesgos que amenacen a las poblaciones de animales silvestres del país o que provengan de ellas. A tal efecto debe generar el conocimiento adecuado y necesario para conferir más eficacia a las políticas y sistemas tocantes a la fauna silvestre, lo que supone, entre otras cosas, determinar y evaluar las nuevas prioridades, facilitando con ello la alerta anticipada y las labores de preparación y prevención.

Joining the dots - understanding the complex interplay between the values we place on wildlife, biodiversity conservation, human and animal health: A review.

The value of wildlife has long been ignored or under-rated. However, growing concerns about biodiversity loss and emerging diseases of wildlife origin have enhanced debates about the importance of wildlife. Wildlife-related diseases are viewed through these debates as a potential threat to wildlife conservation and domestic animal and human health. This article provides an overview of the values we place on wildlife (positive: socio-cultural, nutritional, economic, ecological; and negative: damages, health issues) and of the significance of diseases for biodiversity conservation. It shows that the values of wildlife, the emergence of wildlife diseases and biodiversity conservation are closely linked. The article also illustrates why investigations into wildlife diseases are now recognized as an integral part of global health issues. The modern One Health concept requires multi-disciplinary research groups including veterinarians, human physicians, ecologists and other scientists collaborating towards a common goal: prevention of disease emergence and preservation of ecosystems, both of which are essential to protect human life and well-being.

National competence center for wildlife diseases in Switzerland: Mandate, development and current strategies.

The need for wildlife health surveillance has become increasingly recognized. However, comprehensive programs which cover a wide spectrum of species, pathogens and geographic areas are still lacking in most European countries and practical examples of systems in place remain scarce. This article provides an overview of the organization of wildlife health surveillance in Switzerland, with a focus on the development, current strategies and the activities of the national program carried out by the Centre for Fish and Wildlife Health (FIWI), University of Bern. This documentation may stimulate on-going discussions on the design and development of national wildlife health surveillance programs in other countries. Investigations into wildlife health in Switzerland date back to the 1950s. The FIWI acts as a national competence center for wildlife diseases on mandate of the Swiss federal authorities. The mandate includes four main activities: disease diagnostics, research, consulting and teaching. In line with this, the FIWI has made continuous efforts to strengthen a national network of field partners and implemented strategies to facilitate long-term and metastudies.

First detection of sarcoptic mange in free-ranging wild boar (Sus scrofa) in Switzerland.

In Switzerland sarcoptic mange is frequent in free-ranging wild carnivores but until recent years no cases had been recorded in wild ungulates. Since 2010, cases have been observed in wild boar in the cantons of Solothurn, Tessin and Thurgau. Here, we report the detection of mange-like skin lesions in wild boars by photo-trapping and the post-mortem findings in 6 culled animals presenting different stages of the disease. Potential sources of infection include mangy red foxes, outdoor domestic pigs and wild boars from surrounding countries. Disease spread in the wild boar population may become relevant not only for wildlife but also for domestic pig health in the future if piggeries' biosecurity is insufficient to prevent interactions with wild boar.

Immunoblotting for the serodiagnosis of alveolar echinococcosis in alive and dead Eurasian beavers (Castor fiber).

A novel species-specific anti-beaver-IgG-alkaline-phosphatase conjugate was synthesized for the development of a new serological test for echinococcosis in beavers. Two different ELISAs conventionally used for human Echinococcus multilocularis serology (Em18-ELISA and Em2-ELISA) yielded diagnostic sensitivities of 0% and 46%, respectively. In contrast, the subsequently developed immunoblotting assay gave an 85% diagnostic sensitivity (11 out of 13 beavers with alveolar echinococcosis were immunoblotting-positive, i.e. showed reactivity with a specific 21 Mr band), and maximal specificity. In conclusion, this immunoblotting assay should be the method of choice for use in serological studies on E. multilocularis in Eurasian beavers, and the test proved suitable to investigate both animals alive and post-mortem.

Seroprevalence of hepatitis E virus in domestic pigs and wild boars in Switzerland.

Hepatitis E is considered an emerging human viral disease in industrialized countries. Studies from Switzerland report a human seroprevalence of hepatitis E virus (HEV) of 2.6-21%, a range lower than in adjacent European countries. The aim of this study was to determine whether HEV seroprevalence in domestic pigs and wild boars is also lower in Switzerland and whether it is increasing and thus indicating that this zoonotic viral infection is emerging. Serum samples collected from 2,001 pigs in 2006 and 2011 and from 303 wild boars from 2008 to 2012 were analysed by ELISA for the presence of HEV-specific antibodies. Overall HEV seroprevalence was 58.1% in domestic pigs and 12.5% in wild boars. Prevalence in domestic pigs was significantly higher in 2006 than in 2011. In conclusion, HEV seroprevalence in domestic pigs and wild boars in Switzerland is comparable with the seroprevalence in other countries and not increasing. Therefore, prevalence of HEV in humans must be related to other factors than prevalence in pigs or wild boars.

Epidemic of salmonellosis in passerine birds in Switzerland with spillover to domestic cats.

A die-off of passerine birds, mostly Eurasian siskins (Carduelis spinus), occurred in multiple areas of Switzerland between February and March 2010. Several of the dead birds were submitted for full necropsy. Bacteriological examination was carried out on multiple tissues of each bird. At gross examination, common findings were light-tan nodules, 1 to 4 mm in diameter, scattered through the esophagus/crop. Histologically, a necroulcerative transmural esophagitis/ingluvitis was observed. Bacterial cultures yielded Salmonella enterica subsp. enterica serovar Typhimurium. At the same time, 2 pet clinics reported an unusual increase of domestic cats presented with fever, anorexia, occasionally dolent abdomen, and history of presumed consumption of passerine birds. Analysis of rectal swabs revealed the presence of S. Typhimurium in all tested cats. PFGE (pulsed field electrophoresis) analysis was performed to characterize and compare the bacterial isolates, and it revealed an indistinguishable pattern between all the avian and all but 1 of the feline isolates. Cloacal swabs collected from clinically healthy migrating Eurasian siskins (during autumn 2010) did not yield S. Typhimurium. The histological and bacteriological findings were consistent with a systemic infection caused by S. Typhimurium. Isolation of the same serovar from the dead birds and ill cats, along with the overlapping results of the PFGE analysis for all the animal species, confirmed a spillover from birds to cats through predation. The sudden increase of the number of siskins over the Swiss territory and their persistency during the whole winter of 2009-2010 is considered the most likely predisposing factor for the onset of the epidemic.

Emergence of canine distemper virus strains with modified molecular signature and enhanced neuronal tropism leading to high mortality in wild carnivores.

An ongoing canine distemper epidemic was first detected in Switzerland in the spring of 2009. Compared to previous local canine distemper outbreaks, it was characterized by unusually high morbidity and mortality, rapid spread over the country, and susceptibility of several wild carnivore species. Here, the authors describe the associated pathologic changes and phylogenetic and biological features of a multiple highly virulent canine distemper virus (CDV) strain detected in and/or isolated from red foxes (Vulpes vulpes), Eurasian badgers (Meles meles), stone (Martes foina) and pine (Martes martes) martens, from a Eurasian lynx (Lynx lynx), and a domestic dog. The main lesions included interstitial to bronchointerstitial pneumonia and meningopolioencephalitis, whereas demyelination--the classic presentation of CDV infection--was observed in few cases only. In the brain lesions, viral inclusions were mainly in the nuclei of the neurons. Some significant differences in brain and lung lesions were observed between foxes and mustelids. Swiss CDV isolates shared together with a Hungarian CDV strain detected in 2004. In vitro analysis of the hemagglutinin protein from one of the Swiss CDV strains revealed functional and structural differences from that of the reference strain A75/17, with the Swiss strain showing increased surface expression and binding efficiency to the signaling lymphocyte activation molecule (SLAM). These features might be part of a novel molecular signature, which might have contributed to an increase in virus pathogenicity, partially explaining the high morbidity and mortality, the rapid spread, and the large host spectrum observed in this outbreak.

Establishing a European network for wildlife health surveillance.

Surveillance of wildlife health in Europe remains informal and reporting wildlife diseases is not yet coordinated among countries. At a meeting in Brussels on 15 October 2009, delegates from 25 countries provided an overview of the current status of wildlife health surveillance in Europe. This showed that every year in Europe over 18,000 wild animals are examined as part of general surveillance programmes and over 50,000 wild animals are examined in the course of targeted surveillance. The participants at the Brussels meeting agreed to set up a European network for wildlife health surveillance. The goals of this network, which was established in February 2010, are to improve procedures for the rapid exchange of information, harmonise procedures for investigation and diagnosis of wildlife diseases, share relevant expertise, and provide training opportunities for wildlife health surveillance.

Assessment of the prevalence of Trichinella spp. in red foxes and Eurasian lynxes from Switzerland.

Trichinella spp. larvae have not been detected in Swiss pigs, horses, or wild boar for many decades, whereas the parasite was repeatedly isolated from red foxes and Eurasian lynxes. Whenever the isolated larvae could be subjected to genotyping, T. britovi was found as infective agent. The present study was initiated to re-assess the epidemiological situation of Trichinella infection in Swiss carnivorous wildlife, namely in red foxes and lynxes. Tissue samples from 1,298 foxes were collected between 2006 and 2007, and those of 55 lynxes between 1999 and 2007. All samples were tested by a standard artificial digestion method and a multiplex-PCR to determine the species and/or genotypes of recovered larvae. Trichinella larvae were found in 21 foxes (1.6%) and 15 lynxes (27.3%), and T. britovi was identified as infecting species in all cases. The geographic distribution of positive foxes showed two main clusters: one in Central Switzerland and one in the West of the country, where also many lynxes were found to be positive. While the prevalence for Trichinella infection in foxes was not statistically correlated with sex or age class, the prevalence in lynx was significantly higher in males compared to females, and in adults compared to juveniles.