A Survey on Potentially Beneficial and Hazardous Bioactive Compounds in Cocoa Powder Samples Sourced from the European Market.

Cocoa (Theobroma cacao, L.) represents an important market that gained relevance and became an esteemed commodity thanks to cocoa powder, chocolate, and other related products. This work analyzed 59 cocoa powder samples from the European market. Three distinct subgroups were identified: organic or conventional, alkalized or not alkalized, and raw or roasted processing. The impact of the technological process on their pH, color, and compositional traits, as well as their content of biogenic amines and salsolinol, was evaluated. The phenolic fraction was also investigated through both common and emerging methods. The results depict that the influence of the agronomical practices (organic/conventional) did not significantly (p < 0.05) affect the composition of the cocoa powders; similarly, the roasting process was not a determinant of the compounds traced. On the other hand, the alkalinization process greatly impacted color and pH, no matter the cocoa's provenience or obtention or other processes, also resulting in reducing the phenolic fraction of the treated samples. Principal component analysis confirmed that the alkali process acts on pH, color, and phenolic composition but not on the content of other bioactive molecules (biogenic amines and salsolinol). All the samples were safe, while the alkalized powders saw a great reduction in beneficial biocompounds. A novel strategy could be to emphasize on the label whether cocoa powder is non-alkalized to meet the demand for more beneficial products.

Influence of wheat content and origin on the volatilome of craft wheat beer: An investigation by combined multivariate statistical approaches.

A deeper knowledge of the effect of wheat origin on the volatile organic compounds (VOCs) profile of craft wheat beer is crucial for its quality improvement and local product valorisation. The VOCs profile of 17 craft wheat beers obtained by common and durum, heritage and modern, wheat varieties grown in different fields sited at different altitudes was analysed. Data were processed by multivariate analysis using different approaches. Partial least square (PLS) analysis evidenced that wheat concentration was the highest source of VOCs variance, followed by, wheat species, wheat ancientness, and altitude of cultivation. An insight into the effect of wheat concentration was given by sparse PLS analysis (sPLS). The effect of wheat variety was explored by linear discriminant analysis (LDA), which permitted to correctly classify craft beers made with wheat of different origin (species and variety) on the basis of their VOCs profile. sPLS regression analysis permitted to find a combination of VOCs able to predict the altitude of wheat cultivation as well as to correctly classify wheat beers made with wheat cultivated at different altitudes. A further 'one versus all' approach by Soft Independent Modelling of Class Analogies (SIMCA) permitted to correctly authenticate beers made with different cereal species. Finally, shape analysis by generalized Procrustes analysis (GPA) revealed that the differences among samples were conserved and reflected from wheat kernels to wheat beers. This study suggests a promising use of volatiles fingerprinting with a combination of different statistical approaches to authenticate beer made with wheat of different origin and cultivated at different altitudes, thus stressing out the importance of territory in craft beer production, which, until now, was a neglected topic.

An integrative multi-omics approach aimed to gain insight on the effect of composition, style, yeast, and wheat species on wheat craft beer flavour.

This study was aimed to unravel the effect of raw materials (barley and wheat), wheat concentration (0, 25, 40, and 100 %), wheat species (common and durum), beer style (Blanche and Weiss), and yeast (US-05 and WB-06) on the chemical composition, volatiles, and sensory profile of wheat craft beers by using a multivariate statistical approach. Beer samples were analysed for their composition, volatiles and sensory profile and data were processed using unsupervised multivariate analyses, PLS regression and a multi-omics approach using multi-block PLS-DA. Multi-block variable sparsification was used as an embedded dimension reduction step. The adopted multi-omics approach permitted to correctly classify beers with different styles and wheat concentration, and to accurate classify (95 % accuracy) beers according to yeast type. Wheat species was of lower importance since it permitted a classification with 49 % accuracy which increased to 74 % in Blanche beers, thus suggesting that malting flattened differences determined by wheat species.

Edible insects and legumes exert an antioxidant effect on human colon mucosal cells stressed with 2,2'-azobis (2-amidinopropane)-dihydrochloride.

Introduction: Edible insects have been recognized as a more sustainable source of nutrients and bio-active compounds than animal-based products, in line with classical vegetable sources such as legumes. In this study, we assessed the antioxidant properties of four edible insects (silkworms, grasshoppers, mealworms and giant worms) and four legume seeds (lentils, chickpeas, Roveja peas and grass peas). Methods: After the aqueous extraction or in vitro simulated digestion process, selected products were assessed for: (i) in vitro antioxidant capacity through Ferric Reducing Antioxidant Power (FRAP) assay; (ii) the ability to reduce free radicals production induced by a pro-oxidant agent in cells of human colonic mucosa. Results: All the aqueous extracts and digesta of edible insects displayed significantly higher in vitro antioxidant activity than legumes. Moreover, edible insects at all tested concentrations were able to exert an antioxidant effect in the cellular model, while legumes were effective mainly at high concentrations. Discussion: Despite human trials are need to confirm and define these results in a physiological situation, here we suggest a role for edible insects in oxidative stress prevention. Since oxidative stress is strongly correlated with several intestinal pathologies, the results obtained could be interesting for the prevention and relief of the negative symptoms, offering new advantages to their already known ecological and nutritional properties.

An insight into the impact of climate factors associated with altitude on wheat volatiles' fingerprints at harvest using multivariate statistical analysis.

BACKGROUND: Climate changes associated with global warming are increasingly affecting the quality of cultivated crops. Cultivation at different altitudes and similar latitudes may offer an extraordinarily useful opportunity to obtain a diversificated dataset of climate variables and to further investigate their effect on crop quality. This study evaluated the effect of climate indices - temperature, rainfall precipitation and solar radiation data - on commercial parameters and the volatile organic compound (VOC) profile of wheat at harvest. RESULTS: Three common and durum wheat varieties, including two heritage wheats, were sown in experimental fields sited at three altitudes for 3 years consecutively, and they were analyzed for their yield, grading parameters, and VOC profiles. The datasets were processed by partial least squares regression (PLS-R) and the results indicate that summer days (SU25) and diurnal temperature range (ΔT) are the climate indices mainly responsible for the VOC profile changes in both common and durum wheat. Accumulated growth degree days (GDD), consecutive dry days (CDD), and accumulated solar radiation (ASR) induced species-specific responses. Terpenes represented the chemical class of VOCs most affected by stresses, followed by ketones and alcohols, which were affected by CDD, GDD, and ASR. CONCLUSION: This study showed a selective response of wheat to abiotic stresses associated with climate variables in terms of VOC synthesis. Its findings may be relevant in several fields, from plant ecology to agronomy and food quality, with implications for local economic strategies. © 2023 Society of Chemical Industry.

Long-Term In Situ Conservation Drove Microevolution of Solina d'Abruzzo Wheat on Adaptive, Agronomic and Qualitative Traits.

Solina is an example of a bread wheat landrace that has been conserved in situ for centuries in Central Italy. A core collection of Solina lines sampled in areas at different altitudes and climatic conditions was obtained and genotyped. A clustering analysis based on a wide SNP dataset generated from DArTseq analysis outlined the existence of two main groups, which, after Fst analysis, showed polymorphism in genes associated with vernalization and photoperiod response. Starting from the hypothesis that the different pedoclimatic environments in which Solina lines were conserved may have shaped the population, some phenotypic characteristics were studied in the Solina core collection. Growth habit, low-temperature resistance, allelic variations at major loci involved in vernalization response, and sensitivity to photoperiod were evaluated, together with seed morphologies, grain colour, and hardness. The two Solina groups showed different responses to low temperatures and to photoperiod-specific allelic variations as well as the different morphology and technological characteristics of the grain. In conclusion, the long-term in situ conservation of Solina in environments sited at different altitudes has had an impact on the evolution of this landrace which, despite its high genetic diversity, remains clearly identifiable and distinct so as to be included in conservation varieties.

A unifying approach to wheat beer flavour by chemometric analyses. Could we speak of 'terroir'?

Raw materials are recognized to affect the sensory profile of 'Blanche' craft beers and their 'terroir'. Two common wheat (Triticum aestivum, L.) were harvested in three experimental fields with different pedo-climatic conditions and altitudes, and then used for beer production. The taste and flavour of wheat beers were analysed by sensory (panel and consumer test) and SPME GC-MS analyses. Panel dataset was processed by multivariate statistical analyses: a principal component analysis (PCA) revealed that formulation was the main source of variation of sensory profile in wheat beers and a generalized Procrustes analysis (GPA) showed how wheat origin affected the sensory profiles of wheat craft beers based on the consensus among panelists. Moreover, a partial least-squares discriminant analysis (PLS-DA) on VOCs permitted to discriminate and characterize beers selected by a panel-driven approach. By comparing panel and VOCs results, it was possible to highlight that higher altitudes of wheat cultivation determine an increase of pleasant notes such as fruity and herbal. A PCA on consumer test data confirmed that formulation was the main factor affecting liking scores and that the preferences were affected by age, involvement and frequency of use. An internal preference map combining panel and consumer data suggested that the majority of preferences are driven by a few key sensory attributes. Differences in liking among the considered beers revealed two main consumer groups.

Heritage and modern wheat varieties discrimination by volatiles profiling. Is it a matter of flavor?

Nowadays, the interest in ancient wheat is increasing and this trend point towards the local production of crops and is connected to sustainability. In this study, two ancient wheat (Solina and Cappelli) and four modern (common and durum) varieties were cultivated in experimental fields sited at three different altitudes for three consecutive years in the Abruzzo region. The six wheat varieties were analysed by solid phase microextraction coupled with gas chromatography-mass spectrometry and a chemometric approach. 149 compounds, most of which are odor active, were identified in 109 wheat samples. Heritage wheat varieties showed a volatile organic compounds (VOCs) profile different from modern varieties along with a characteristic set of odor types. An 82% of correct classification was achieved for heritage wheat varieties. VOCs with floral and herbal odors were the most important odor scents for Solina classification, whereas waxy odor was the most important for Cappelli discrimination.

Unravelling the role of sodium chloride and hydroxytyrosol on the colloidal properties and oxidative stability of olive oil-based o/w emulsions: A multivariate statistical approach.

The individual and combined effect of sodium chloride and hydroxytyrosol on the colloidal properties and the chemical and physical stability of olive oil-in-water emulsions was explored by multivariate statistical analysis. Sodium chloride affected the dispersion degree of the emulsions causing an increase of droplet size and inducing flocculation phenomena; however, during storage, the presence of hydroxytyrosol, when added in combination with 2% and 5% of NaCl, retarded samples physical destabilization. A protective effect of salt on lipid hydroperoxides, over storage, was highlighted, mainly at the highest concentrations used. The analysis of volatile organic compounds allowed to identify different oxidation patterns as a consequence of NaCl addition and hydroxytyrosol; moreover, by applying a multivariate statistical approach, it was possible to highlight a positive effect of both NaCl and hydroxytyrosol over the reduction of some oxidation volatiles.

Exploration of the Genetic Diversity of Solina Wheat and Its Implication for Grain Quality.

Different Solina wheat accessions (n = 24) collected in the Abruzzo region (Italy) were studied using 45,000 SNP markers generated from the DarTseq platform. The structure of genetic data was analyzed by Principal Component Analysis and Hierarchical Cluster analysis that revealed the existence of two main clusters (Clu1 and Clu2) characterized by samples with different geographical origin. The Solina genetic dataset was further merged and analyzed with a public genetic one provided by CIMMYT containing 25,963 genotypes from all over the world. The Solina accessions occupied a vast space, thus confirming a high heterogeneity of this landrace that, nevertheless, is considerably unique and placed quite far from other clusters. Clu1 and Clu2 divergence were clearly visible. Solina clusters were genetically closer to landraces from Turkey and the central fertile crescent than to the Italian genotypes present in the dataset. Selected commercial quality traits of accessions of the two Solina clusters were analyzed (yield, thousand kernel weight, test weight, and protein content), and significant differences were found between clusters. The results of this investigation did not highlight any relationships of Solina with Italian genotypes, and confirmed its wide genetic diversity by permitting to identify two genetic groups with distinct origin and quality traits.

Reparameterization of the Weibull model for practical uses in food science.

The reparameterization of the Weibull cumulative distribution function and its survival function was performed to obtain meaningful parameters in food and biological sciences such as the lag phase (λ), the maximum rate ( µ max ${\mu _{{\rm{max}}}}$ ), and the maximum increase/decrease of the function (A). The application of the Lambert function was crucial in order to achieve an explicit mathematical solution. Since the reparameterized model is applicable only when the shape parameter (α) is greater than one, the Weibull model was modified with the introduction of a new parameter ( µ ß ${\mu _\beta }$ ) that represents the model rate at time ß (scale parameter). All models were applied to literature data on food technology and microbiology topics: Microbial growth, thermal microbial inactivation, thermal degradation kinetics, and particle size distributions. The Weibull model and the reparameterized versions showed identical fitting performance in terms of coefficient of determination, residual mean standard error, values of residuals, and estimated values of the parameters. Some faults in the datasets used in this study permitted to re-mark the criticality of a good experimental plan when data modeling is approached. The parameter µ ß ${\mu _\beta }$ resulted in an interesting new rate parameter that is not correlated with the scale parameter ( | r ¯ | $| {\bar{r}} |$ = 0.64 ± 0.37) and highly correlated with the shape parameter ( | r ¯ | $| {\bar{r}} |$ = 0.90 ± 0.11). Also, the reparameterization of the Weibull probability density function was performed by using both the standard and new parameters and applied to experimental data and gave useful information from the distribution curve, such as the value of the mode ( µ max ${\mu _{{\rm{max}}}}$ ) and a measure of the curve skewness (λ).

Volatiles profile of 'Blanche' wheat craft beer as affected by wheat origin: A chemometric study.

The aroma of craft beers is recognized to affect their overall acceptability and drinkability. Raw materials can affect the volatile organic compounds (VOCs) of beers and their aroma. The VOCs profile of wheat craft beers produced with wheat (Triticum aestivum, L.) of different origin (variety and cultivation site) in increasing concentration was analysed. PLS2 analysis evidenced that wheat concentration is the main factor affecting VOCs profile, whilst the effect of variety (Vittorio and Solina) and altitude of cultivation (70, 500 and 1,200 m a.s.l.) on VOCs variance was lower. PLS-DA permitted to differentiate beers obtained with the two varieties for their VOCs profile: 2-Ethylhexanol, a cultivar specific indicator, was found in beers made with Solina.

Quantitatively unravelling the effect of altitude of cultivation on the volatiles fingerprint of wheat by a chemometric approach.

The cultivation of crops at high elevations in response to climate changes leads to modifications in the volatile organic compounds (VOCs) profile. The VOCs profile of common and durum wheat grown in different fields sited at three different elevations over two years was analysed. Partial least square analysis (PLS2) evidenced the effect of altitude on VOCs variance that was hidden among others (cultivation year, species, farm) not correlated with it. PLS1 analysis was further carried out using VOCs as explanatory variables and altitude as dependent variable to find the linear combination of VOCs able to continuously predict the altitude of samples. Selected VOCs, related to biotic, abiotic and oxidative stress conditions, could describe the changes in VOCs profile of wheat induced by altitude increase. Furthermore, common and durum wheat showed different responses to stress at high altitude. These results could be considerably useful for wheat product classification and authentication.

Could environmental effect overcome genetic? A chemometric study on wheat volatiles fingerprint.

A deeper knowledge of the causes of volatile organic compounds (VOCs) variance in wheat is crucial for quality improvement and control of its derivatives. The VOCs profile of common and durum wheat kernels grown in different fields sited at different altitudes over two years was analysed and 149 compounds were identified by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry. Principal component analysis evidenced that the year of cultivation was the highest source of VOCs variance. The effects of wheat origin, as described by the cultivation site, its elevation, and species were further investigated by PLS-DA, that permitted to correctly classify wheat of different origin on the basis of its VOCs profile. The importance of the different effects was investigated by multidimensional test and resulted: year of cultivation > field of cultivation > species > altitude. Findings suggest that environmental conditions are more important than species in the determination of the VOCs variance of wheat.

Wheat classification according to its origin by an implemented volatile organic compounds analysis.

Food volatile organic compounds (VOCs) analysis is a useful tool in authentication and classification processes, but, to date, the analysis of wheat VOCs is still little explored. In this study a method of analysis based on solid phase microextraction coupled with gas chromatography-mass spectrometry was optimized by testing different types of fibers, sample preparation methods and amounts, extraction temperatures and times, desorption times and oven programs. The analysis was applied to six wheat cultivars harvested in different areas, and permitted to identify 158 VOCs, of which 98 never found before. A principal component analysis performed on the dataset showed that the area of cultivation accounted for the highest source of variability. Partial least squares analysis permitted to correctly classify wheats based on their cultivation area and species, and to identify the most discriminant VOCs. These results are promising for the study of the influence of geographical origin on wheat quality.

Evaluation of polyphenol bioaccessibility and kinetic of starch digestion of spaghetti with persimmon (Dyospyros kaki) flours coproducts during in vitro gastrointestinal digestion.

The aim was to study the in vitro starch digestibility, the free and bound polyphenol profile and their bioaccessibility and antioxidant activity during in vitro gastrointestinal digestion of durum wheat semolina spaghetti added with two types of persimmon flour concentrates ("Rojo Brillante" flour and "Triumph" flour) at two concentrations (3 and 6%). Results obtained showed that persimmon flour improves the polyphenol profile of spaghetti by addition gallic acid and coumaric acid-o-hexoside, and increasing 2-fold and around 3-fold its content in spaghetti with 3% and 6% persimmon flours, respectively. Cooked process and digestion affected more to free polyphenol content than bound. Furthermore, 3% persimmon flour enriched spaghetti reduce kinetic of starch digestion, while 6% enriched spaghetti increased it. In conclusion, persimmon flours (Rojo Brillante and Triumph) at low concentrations could be used to develop spaghetti with more polyphenol content and less starch digestibility than traditional spaghetti.

Antioxidant Activity in Frozen Plant Foods: Effect of Cryoprotectants, Freezing Process and Frozen Storage.

The antioxidant activity (AOA) of plant foods is recognized as an index of the potential health benefits resulting from their consumption. Due to their high perishability and seasonality, plant foods are largely consumed or used as processed products and freezing is one of the technologies used for the production of high-quality foods. However, cell breakages occurring during freezing and frozen storage can lead to the release of antioxidant compounds and their degradation due to chemical and enzymatic oxidation reactions, and thus, they could present a lower antioxidant activity compared to the corresponding fresh product. In this context, process conditions, freezing pre-treatments and the use of cryoprotectants can limit the extent of freeze-induced damages and preserve the antioxidant activity of plant foods. This review collects and discusses the state-of-the-art knowledge on the single and combined effect of freezing and frozen storage conditions on the antioxidant activity of fruits and vegetables as well as the role of cryoprotectants. Classes of compounds responsible for the antioxidant activity of plant foods and the most common methods used for the evaluation of the antioxidant activity in vitro are also presented. The freezing principles and the effects of ice nucleation and crystallization on fruits, vegetables and their main derivatives (juices, pulps) have been addressed to highlight their impact on the AOA of plant foods. The effect of freezing and frozen storage on the AOA of plant foods resulted dependant on a series of intrinsic factors (e.g., composition and structure), while the role of extrinsic processing-related factors, such as freezing and storage temperatures, is ambiguous. In particular, many conflicting results are reported in the literature with a high variability depending on the method of analysis used for the AOA evaluation and data expression (fresh or dry weight). Other intrinsic raw material properties (e.g., cultivar, ripening degree), post-harvest conditions, as well as defrosting methods that in the majority of the studies are scarcely reported, contribute to the aforementioned discrepancies. Finally, due to the limited number of studies reported in the literature and the high variability in product processing, the effect of cryoprotectants on the AOA of plant foods remains unclear.

Casing Contribution to Proteolytic Changes and Biogenic Amines Content in the Production of an Artisanal Naturally Fermented Dry Sausage.

The effect of two kinds of casings on the production and characteristics of a dry fermented sausage was investigated. In detail, an Italian product, naturally fermented at low temperatures and normally wrapped in beef casing instead of the most diffused hog one, was selected. Two different productions (one traditionally in beef casing (MCB) and another in hog casing (MCH)) were investigated over time to determine the differences particularly regarding proteolytic changes during fermentation and ripening. First of all, the product in hog casing required a longer ripening time, up to 120 days, instead of 45-50 days, because of the lower drying rate, while the microbial dynamics were not significantly modified. Conversely, the proteolysis showed a different evolution, being more pronounced, together with the biogenic amines content up to 341 mg/Kg instead of 265 mg/Kg for the traditional products. The latter products were instead characterized by higher quantities of total free amino acids, 3-methyl butanoic acid, 3-Methyl-1-butanal, and 2-Methylpropanal, enriching the final taste and aroma. The traditional product MCB also showed lower hardness and chewiness than MCH. The results highlight how the choice of casing has a relevant impact on the development of the final characteristics of fermented sausages.

Physical and Sensory Properties of Mayonnaise Enriched with Encapsulated Olive Leaf Phenolic Extracts.

This work aimed to study the physical, structural, and sensory properties of a traditional full-fat mayonnaise (≈ 80% oil) enriched with an olive leaf phenolic extract, added as either free extract or encapsulated in alginate/pectin microparticles. Physical characterization of the mayonnaise samples was investigated by particle size, viscosity, lubricant properties, and color; a sensory profile was also developed by a quantitative descriptive analysis. The addition of the extract improved the dispersion degree of samples, especially when the olive leaf extract-loaded alginate/pectin microparticles were used. The encapsulated extract affected, in turn, the viscosity and lubricant properties. In particular, both of the enriched samples showed a lower spreadability and a higher salty and bitter perception, leading to a reduced overall acceptability. The results of this study could contribute to understanding the effects of the enrichment of emulsified food systems with olive by-product phenolic extracts, both as free and encapsulated forms, in order to enhance real applications of research outcomes for the design and development of healthy and functional formulated foods.

Response of organic and conventional apples to freezing and freezing pre-treatments: Focus on polyphenols content and antioxidant activity.

The effect of pre-treatment (dipping and vacuum impregnation in lemon juice solution), freezing and frozen storage (FS) on single and total polyphenols (free and conjugated) content and antioxidant activity (AOA) of organic and conventional apples, was investigated. Fresh organic and conventional fruits showed different profiles of free and conjugated polyphenols while their total phenolic content and AOA were similar. Organic and conventional apple tissues showed different physiological responses to physical stresses described by changes in phenolic profiles. Vacuum impregnation in lemon juice affected the polyphenols extractability of both the organic and conventional apples and favored their enrichment with bioactive compounds (AOA = +11.5%). FS decreased the single and conjugated polyphenols content of the pre-treated apple samples and the effect was different between organic and conventional fruits. After FS, not pre-treated organic apples showed a lower AOA reduction than the conventional ones (-13% vs -25%), while no differences were found on pre-treated samples.