Family of Bioactive Heparin-Coated Iron Oxide Nanoparticles with Positive Contrast in Magnetic Resonance Imaging for Specific Biomedical Applications.

Unfractionated heparin (UFH) and low-molecular-weight heparins (LMWH) are well-known for their anticoagulant properties. There is also currently a growing interest in using LMWH in targeted cancer therapy. In particular, several types inhibit heparanase, a key enzyme overexpressed in the tumor microenvironment that promotes angiogenesis progression and metastasis spreading. Here, we propose iron oxide nanoparticles (HEP-IONP) coated with different heparins of distinct anticoagulant/anti-heparanase activity ratios and suitable for positive contrast in magnetic resonance imaging. As a proof of concept, magnetic resonance angiography (MRA) was conducted in mice up to 3 h after intravenous administration. This new IONP-based positive contrast appropriate for clinic together with the long vascular circulating times can enable innovative theranostic applications if combined with the various bioactivities of the heparins. Indeed, we showed, using advanced in vitro tests, how HEP-IONP anticoagulant or anti-heparanase activities were maintained depending on the heparin species used for the coating. Overall, the study allowed presenting an IONP coated with a commercial LMWH (Lovenox) suggested as a theranostic translational probe for MRA diagnostic and treatment of thrombosis, and an antitumor IONP coated with a specific depolymerized heparin to be used in targeted therapy and diagnostic modalities.

Assessment of Heparanase-Mediated Angiogenesis Using Microvascular Endothelial Cells: Identification of λ-Carrageenan Derivative as a Potent Anti Angiogenic Agent.

Heparanase is overexpressed by tumor cells and degrades the extracellular matrix proteoglycans through cleavage of heparan sulfates (HS), allowing pro-angiogenic factor release and thus playing a key role in tumor angiogenesis and metastasis. Here we propose new HS analogs as potent heparanase inhibitors: Heparin as a positive control, Dextran Sulfate, λ-Carrageenan, and modified forms of them obtained by depolymerization associated to glycol splitting (RD-GS). After heparanase activity assessment, 11 kDa RD-GS-λ-Carrageenan emerged as the most effective heparanase inhibitor with an IC50 of 7.32 ng/mL compared to 10.7 ng/mL for the 16 kDa unfractionated heparin. The fractionated polysaccharides were then tested in a heparanase-rich medium-based in vitro model, mimicking tumor microenvironment, to determine their effect on microvascular endothelial cells (HSkMEC) angiogenesis. As a preliminary study, we identified that under hypoxic and nutrient poor conditions, MCF-7 cancer cells released much more mature heparanase in their supernatant than in normal conditions. Then a MatrigelTM assay using HSkMEC cultured under hypoxic conditions in the presence (or not) of this heparanase-rich supernatant was realized. Adding heparanase-rich media strongly enhanced angiogenic network formation with a production of twice more pseudo-vessels than with the control. When sulfated polysaccharides were tested in this angiogenesis assay, RD-GS-λ-Carrageenan was identified as a promising anti-angiogenic agent.

Production of heparin and λ-carrageenan anti-heparanase derivatives using a combination of physicochemical depolymerization and glycol splitting.

Strongly associated with tumor angiogenesis and metastasis, the enzyme heparanase is an endo-ß-d-glucuronidase which is overexpressed in the tumor microenvironment. Its inhibition could be one of the most promising anti-angiogenic approaches to date. Although heparin is known as a good heparanase inhibitor, it also possesses major anticoagulant properties that may be incompatible with its use as an anti-angiogenic agent, hence the considerable interest for other sources of sulfated polysaccharides. Recent investigations point to λ-carrageenans, highly sulfated galactans with a tremendous potential that are found in red algae. This study describes the production of low-molecular-weight (LMW) heparins and λ-carrageenans, using a combination of glycol splitting and ultrasonically-assisted radical hydrolysis using hydrogen-peroxide. The structural characteristics, as well as the anticoagulant and antiheparanase activities of the resulting products were assessed. The best candidate was a LMW glycol-split λ-carrageenan that displayed major anti-heparanase properties, with an IC50 of 7.32ng/mL and a close-to-zero anticoagulant activity.

Alteration of cathepsin D trafficking induced by hypoxia and extracellular acidification in MCF-7 breast cancer cells.

The microenvironment that surrounds tumor cells is characterized by hypoxic conditions and extracellular acidity. These hostile conditions induce crucial changes in cell behavior and can promote the secretion of many soluble factors such as growth factors, cytokines and enzymes. The lysosomal aspartyl-endopeptidase cathepsin D (CD) is a marker of poor prognosis in breast cancer and is associated with a metastatic risk. In this study, the transport of CD was investigated in a model of breast cancer cells line (MCF-7) cultivated under hypoxia and acidification of media. CD secretion was assessed using Western blot analysis and protease activity was measured in conditioned culture media. We demonstrate that cultured MCF-7 cells secrete an active 52 kDa pCD precursor and report that under hypoxia there was an increased amount of pCD secreted. More surprisingly, extracellular acidification (pH 6 and 5.6) induced the secretion of the fully-mature and active (34 kDa + 14 kDa) double chain CD. Our findings reflect the fact that chemical anomalies influence the secretion path of CD in a breast cancer cell model, resulting in altered trafficking of the mature form. This important result may provide new arguments in favor of the role of extracellular CD in the degradation of the matrix proteins that constitute the breast tumor microenvironment.

Anti-heparanase activity of ultra-low-molecular-weight heparin produced by physicochemical depolymerization.

Heparanase is an endo-ß-D-glucuronidase that plays an important role in cancer progression, in particular during tumor angiogenesis and metastasis. Inhibiting this enzyme is considered as one of the most promising approaches in cancer therapy. Heparin is a complex glycoaminoglycan known as a strong inhibitor of heparanase. It is primarily used in clinical practice for its anticoagulant activities, which may not be compatible with its use as anti-angiogenic agent. In this study, we described the production of ultra-low-molecular-weight heparins (ULMWH) by a physicochemical method that consists in a hydrogen peroxide-catalyzed radical hydrolysis assisted by ultrasonic waves. We assessed the structural characteristics, anticoagulant and anti-heparanase activities of the obtained heparin derivatives and compared them with three commercial low-molecular-weight heparins (LMWH), glycol-split non-anticoagulant heparins and heparins produced by enzymatic methods. ULMWH generated by the physicochemical method were characterized by high anti-heparanase and moderate anticoagulant activities. These heparin derivatives might be potential candidates for cancer therapy when a compromise is needed between anti-heparanase and anticoagulant activities.

Measuring angiotensin-I converting enzyme inhibitory activity by micro plate assays: comparison using marine cryptides and tentative threshold determinations with captopril and losartan.

To determine the angiotensin-I converting enzyme (ACE) inhibitory activity of marine cryptides, different methods were tested. ACE inhibition was measured using two synthetic substrates, (N-[3-(2-furyl) acryloyl]-Phe-Gly-Gly (FAPGG) and N-hippuryl-His-Leu hydrate salt (HHL)), and a natural one, angiotensin-I. The IC50 value (defined as the concentration of inhibitory molecule needed to inhibit 50% of the ACE activity) of the reference synthetic inhibitor captopril was in the nanomolar range (1.79-15.1 nM) when synthetic substrates were used, whereas it exhibited IC50 of micromolar range (16.71 µM) with angiotensin-I. We chose losartan, an antagonist of angiotensin-II receptor as negative control for the ACE inhibition. Losartan was also able to inhibit ACE whatever the substrate tested, with IC50 of micromolar range (17.13-146 µM). We defined this value as a limit above which molecules are not showing in vitro ACE inhibitory activity. Val-Trp (VW), Val-Tyr (VY), Lys-Tyr (KY), Lys-Trp (KW), Ile-Tyr (IY), Ala-Pro (AP), Val-Ile-Tyr (VIY), Leu-Lys-Pro (LKP), Gly-Pro-Leu (GPL), Ala-Lys-Lys (AKK), and Val-Ala-Pro (VAP) were tested as inhibitors of ACE with synthetic and natural substrates. IC50 displayed were substrate-dependent. With FAPGG as substrate, IW, VAP, KY, IY, AP, AKK, and VIY show IC50 values over the IC50 value of losartan and should not be considered as inhibitors of ACE. VY, VW, KW, and LKP exhibited IC50 value lower than the IC50 value of losartan for all substrates tested and were thus considered as good candidates for effectively decreasing hypertension. It appears that the comparison of IC50 is not consistent when IC50 values are obtained with different substrates and different methods. In vitro ACE inhibitory activity assays should always include various ACE substrates and references such as captopril and a negative control to obtain data reliable to discriminate ACE inhibitory peptides.

Ultrasonic-assisted preparation of a low molecular weight heparin (LMWH) with anticoagulant activity.

Low molecular weight heparin (LMWH) is currently used as an anticoagulant agent and constitutes an alternative to unfractionated heparin, which is the cause of serious adverse drug reaction such as heparin-induced thrombocytopenia (HIT). Commercially available LMWH is produced by enzymatic depolymerization that is costly or by chemical methods that are generally carried out under conditions that could imply side reactions that reduce final product efficiency and yields. In this work, we present the use of a physicochemical method for the production of LMWH. This method consists in the use of hydrogen peroxide-catalyzed radical hydrolysis assisted by ultrasonic waves. LMWH that are produced using this physicochemical method have an average molecular weight and anticoagulant properties (Anti-Xa and Anti-IIa) that are comparable to some of commercial LMWH that are currently used. Ultrasonic-assisted radical depolymerization of heparin leads to products with a remarkably low polydispersity index. Moreover, in comparison to other LMWH such as those produced by enzymatic ß-elimination, this physicochemical depolymerization of heparin induces fewer oligosaccharides with less than five monosaccharide units. This contributes to the better preservation of the ATIII pentasaccharide binding sequence, which results in a high Anti-Xa/Anti-IIa ratio (1.86). However, LMWH obtained using this physicochemical method have a lower degree of sulfation than other LMWH, which seems to be the cause of a lower Anti-Xa and Anti-IIa activity (143.62±5.42 and 77.07±4.4, respectively).

Cathepsin D activity and selectivity in the acidic conditions of a tumor microenvironment: Utilization in the development of a novel Cathepsin D substrate for simultaneous cancer diagnosis and therapy.

Pro-Cathepsin D (pCD) is an aspartyl endopeptidase which is over expressed in many cancers. This over expression generally led to its secretion into the extracellular culture medium of cancer cells. Moreover, pCD can auto activate and cleave its substrates at an acidic pH compatible with that found in tumor microenvironments (TME). Thus, exploiting these two pathological characteristics of TME offers the opportunity to develop new protease-activated vector on the basis of their specific substrate structures. The aim of this study was to validate new pCD substrates in the extracellular pH conditions of TME. As a first step, we investigated the effect of pH on the catalytic activity and selectivity of mature Cathepsin D (CD). It was found that the increase in the pH of the media led to a decrease in the reaction rate. However, the specificity of mature CD was not affected by a variation in pH. In the second step, the effect of the substrate structure was studied. We demonstrated that the substrate structure had a significant effect on the catalytic activity of CD. In fact, some modifications in peptide structure induced a change in the catalytic behavior that involved a substrate activation phenomenon. We suggest that this activation may be related to the amphiphilic nature of the modified peptide that may induce an interfacial activation mechanism. Finally, pCD, which is the major form found in the extracellular culture medium of cancer cells, was used. We demonstrated that the proform of CD cleave the modified peptide 5 at pH 6.5 with the same cleavage selectivity obtained with the mature form of the protease. These data provide a better understanding of CD behavior in tumor microenvironment conditions and this knowledge can be used to develop more specific tools for diagnosis and drug delivery.

Goat whey fermentation by Kluyveromyces marxianus and Lactobacillus rhamnosus release tryptophan and tryptophan-lactokinin from a cryptic zone of alpha-lactalbumin.

Angiotensin-I-Converting Enzyme (ACE) inhibitors peptides were produced from unsupplemented acid goat whey fermented aerobically for 168 h by Kluyveromyces marxianus and Lactobacillus rhamnosus. This yeast-lactobacillus association is GRAS. Two novel lactokinins were identified: NYW and W with IC50 of 20 and 0.86 mum respectively. They both were resistant toward simulated gastrointestinal digestion. In addition, WLAHK was found in the hydrolysate. These three sequences belong to f(99-110) of alpha-la which seems to be a lactokinin cryptic zone. W was the major molecule released by the fermentation process. Considering that W is the precursor of serotonin, the hydrolysate produced could be of interest for the generation of functional health ingredient involved in regulation of affective disorders and hypertension.

Crude goat whey fermentation by Kluyveromyces marxianus and Lactobacillus rhamnosus: contribution to proteolysis and ACE inhibitory activity.

Unsupplemented acid goat whey containing 0.96% protein and 2.76% lactose was fermented aerobically with 32 microflora extracted from various raw milk cheeses and dairy products. These microflora were screened for their ability to hydrolyse whey proteins (alpha-lactalbumin and/or beta-lactoglobulin) and to generate peptides inhibitors of Angiotensin I Converting Enzyme. Five microflora were able to degrade whey protein. The most efficient microflora was able to fully hydrolyse alpha-lactalbumin and to a lesser extend beta-lactoglobulin. It was extracted from Bamalou des Pyrenées cheese. Micro-organisms involved consisted of yeast Kluyveromyces marxianus and lactobacillus Lactobacillus rhamnosus. Both were able to produce ACE inhibitory peptides after whey fermentation.

Peptides released from acid goat whey by a yeast-lactobacillus association isolated from cheese microflora.

Seven lactobacilli and a variety of microflora extracted from twenty five commercial cheeses were grown on unsupplemented acid goat whey and screened for their capacity to hydrolyse whey proteins [alpha-lactalbumin (alpha-la) and beta-lactoglobulin (beta-lg)] and to generate peptides. Fermentations were performed aerobically or anaerobically at 37 degrees C using crude or pre-heated whey (10 min at 65, 75 or 85 degrees C). Under aerobic conditions, growth of lactobacilli was poor and protein hydrolysis did not occur. Anaerobic conditions slightly increased lactobacilli growth but neither beta-lg hydrolysis nor peptide generation were observed. More than 50% of alpha-la was digested into a truncated form of alpha-la (+/- 12 kDa) in crude whey and whey pre-heated at 65 degrees C. Twenty-five microflora extracted from raw milk cheeses were screened for their proteolytic activities on acid goat whey under the conditions previously described. Eight of them were able to hydrolyse up to 50% of alpha-la mainly during aerobic growth on crude or pre-heated whey. The corresponding hydrolysates were enriched in peptides. The hydrolysate involving microflora extracted from Comté cheese after or at 18 months ripening was the only one to exhibit hydrolysis of both alpha-la and beta-lg. Microbiological analysis showed that microorganisms originating from Comté cheese and capable of growth on unsupplemented whey consisted of Candida parapsilosis and Lactobacillus paracasei. Fermentation kinetic profiles suggested that peptides were released from alpha-la hydrolysis. The co-culture of both microorganisms was required for alpha-la hydrolysis that occurred concomitantly with the pH decrease. During whey fermentation, Cand. parapsilosis excrete at least one protease responsible for alpha-la hydrolysis, and Lb. paracasei is responsible for medium acidification that is required for protease activation.

Effect of protein concentration, pH, lactose content and pasteurization on thermal gelation of acid caprine whey protein concentrates.

The influence of pH (4.5-6.5), sodium chloride content (125-375 mM), calcium chloride content (10-30 mM), protein concentration (70-90 g/l) and lactose content on the gel hardness of goat whey protein concentrate (GWPC) in relation to the origin of the acid whey (raw or pasteurized milk) was studied using a factorial design. Gels were obtained after heat treatment (90 degrees C, 30 min). Gel hardness was measured using texture analyser. Only protein concentration and pH were found to have a statistically significant effect on the gel hardness. An increase in the protein concentration resulted in an increase in the gel hardness. GWPC containing 800g/kg protein formed gels with a hardness maximum at the pHi, whereas GWPC containing 300 g/kg protein did not form true gels. Whey from pasteurized milk formed softer gels than whey from raw milk. A high lactose content (approximately 360 g/kg) also reduced the gelation performance of GWPC.

Comparative effects of angiotensin IV and two hemorphins on angiotensin-converting enzyme activity.

The role of angiotensin IV (AngIV) in the regulation of angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE) was studied in vitro. This study demonstrates that this active fragment appeared as a novel endogenous ACE inhibitor. Inhibitory kinetic studies revealed that AngIV acts as a purely competitive inhibitor with a K(i) value of 35 microM. AngIV was found to be quite resistant to ACE hydrolysis opposite to hemorphins which are both ACE inhibitors and substrates. In order to confirm a putative role of AngIV and hemorphins in the Renin-Angiotensin system (RAS) regulation, we studied their influence on AngI conversion. We noticed that 16.7 microM of both peptides decreased more than 50% of AngI conversion to AngII in vitro. The capacity of hemorphins, particularly LVVH-7, and AngIV to inhibit ACE activity here suggests a synergistic relation between these two peptides and the regulation of RAS.

HPLC preparation of fish waste hydrolysate fractions. Effect on guinea pig ileum and ACE activity.

The effect of RP-HPLC-purified fractions of fish waste hydrolysates issued from three fish industries was tested on guinea pig ileum in order to examine the presence of opioid molecules. The evaluation of anti-hypertensive activities of whole hydrolysates and fractions were also tested, monitoring the ability of the fraction to inhibit the activity of angiotensin I-converting enzyme involved in hypertension regulation. Sardine autolysate and cod head hydrolysate powder (50 microg) were able to inhibit near 30% of ACE activity, whereas 50 microg of shrimp hydrolysate allows the inhibition of 57% of ACE activity. HPLC fractionation of cod head hydrolysate and sardine autolysate was necessary to evidence biological activity, whereas HPLC separation of shrimp hydrolysate exhibited low biological activity fractions. Further studies are necessary to characterise bioactive molecules from cod head alcalase hydrolysate and from sardine autolysate.