Differentiation of derived rabbit trophoblast stem cells under fluid shear stress to mimic the trophoblastic barrier.

BACKGROUND: The placenta controls exchanges between the mother and the fetus and therefore fetal development and growth. The maternal environment can lead to disturbance of placental functions, with consequences on the health of the offspring. Since the rabbit placenta is very close to that of humans, rabbit models can provide biomedical data to study human placental function. Yet, to limit the use of animal experiments and to investigate the mechanistic aspects of placental function, we developed a new cell culture model in which rabbit trophoblast cells are differentiated from rabbit trophoblast stem cells. METHODS: Rabbit trophoblast stems cells were derived from blastocysts and differentiated onto a collagen gel and in the presence of a flow of culture medium to mimic maternal blood flow. Transcriptome analysis was performed on the stem and differentiated cells. RESULTS: Our culture model allows the differentiation of trophoblast stem cells. In particular, the fluid shear stress enhances microvilli formation on the differentiated cell surface, lipid droplets formation and fusion of cytotrophoblasts into syncytiotrophoblasts. In addition, the transcriptome analysis confirms the early trophoblast identity of the derived stem cells and reveals upregulation of signaling pathways involved in trophoblast differentiation. CONCLUSION: Thereby, the culture model allows mimicking the in vivo conditions in which maternal blood flow exerts a shear stress on trophoblast cells that influences their phenotype. GENERAL SIGNIFICANCE: Our culture model can be used to study the differentiation of trophoblast stem cells into cytotrophoblasts and syncytiotrophoblasts, as well as the trophoblast function in physiological and pathological conditions.

Gallein, a Gßγ subunit signalling inhibitor, inhibits metastatic spread of tumour cells expressing OR51E2 and exposed to its odorant ligand.

OBJECTIVE: We previously reported that the olfactory receptor OR51E2, overexpressed in LNCaP prostate cancer cells, promotes cell invasiveness upon stimulation of its agonist ß-ionone, and this phenomenon increases metastatic spread. Furthermore, we showed that the induced cell invasiveness involves a PI3 kinase dependent signalling pathway. We report here the results of a new investigation to address whether gallein, a small inhibitor of G protein ßγ subunit interaction with PI3 kinase, can inhibit ß-ionone effects both in vitro and in vivo. RESULTS: We demonstrate that gallein can inhibit the ß-ionone-induced cell invasiveness in vitro, as well as the spread of metastases in vivo. LNCaP cell invasiveness, assessed using spheroid cultures in collagen gels in vitro, was increased by ß-ionone and the effect was reversed by co-administration of gallein. LNCaP tumour cells, subcutaneously inoculated to immunodeficient mice, generated more metastases in vivo when ß-ionone was applied through the skin. Furthermore, the intraperitoneal injection of gallein inhibited this increased metastasis spread. Our results thus support the role of OR51E2 in the ß-ionone observed effects, and suggest that gallein could be a potential new agent in personalized medicine of the tumours expressing OR51E2.

Structurally related odorant ligands of the olfactory receptor OR51E2 differentially promote metastasis emergence and tumor growth.

Olfactory receptors are G protein-coupled receptors. Some of them are expressed in tumor cells, such as the OR51E2 receptor overexpressed in LNCaP prostate cancer cells. It is considered a prostate tumor marker. We previously demonstrated that this receptor is able to promote LNCaP cell invasiveness in vitro upon stimulation with its odorant agonist ß-ionone, leading to increased generation of metastases in vivo. In the present study, we show that even a relatively short exposure to ß-ionone is sufficient to promote metastasis emergence. Moreover, α-ionone, considered an OR51E2 antagonist, in fact promotes prostate tumor growth in vivo. The combination of α-ionone with ß-ionone triggers a higher increase in the total tumor burden than each molecule alone. To support the in vivo results, we demonstrate in vitro that α-ionone is a real agonist of OR51E2, mainly sustaining LNCaP cell growth, while ß-ionone mainly promotes cell invasiveness. So, while structurally close, α-ionone and ß-ionone appear to induce different cellular effects, both leading to increased tumor aggressiveness. This behaviour could be explained by a different coupling to downstream effectors, as it has been reported for the so-called biased ligands of other G protein-coupled receptors.

Mammalian olfactory receptors: molecular mechanisms of odorant detection, 3D-modeling, and structure-activity relationships.

This chapter describes the main characteristics of olfactory receptor (OR) genes of vertebrates, including generation of this large multigenic family and pseudogenization. OR genes are compared in relation to evolution and among species. OR gene structure and selection of a given gene for expression in an olfactory sensory neuron (OSN) are tackled. The specificities of OR proteins, their expression, and their function are presented. The expression of OR proteins in locations other than the nasal cavity is regulated by different mechanisms, and ORs display various additional functions. A conventional olfactory signal transduction cascade is observed in OSNs, but individual ORs can also mediate different signaling pathways, through the involvement of other molecular partners and depending on the odorant ligand encountered. ORs are engaged in constitutive dimers. Ligand binding induces conformational changes in the ORs that regulate their level of activity depending on odorant dose. When present, odorant binding proteins induce an allosteric modulation of OR activity. Since no 3D structure of an OR has been yet resolved, modeling has to be performed using the closest G-protein-coupled receptor 3D structures available, to facilitate virtual ligand screening using the models. The study of odorant binding modes and affinities may infer best-bet OR ligands, to be subsequently checked experimentally. The relationship between spatial and steric features of odorants and their activity in terms of perceived odor quality are also fields of research that development of computing tools may enhance.

Force measurements on natural membrane nanovesicles reveal a composition-independent, high Young's modulus.

Mechanical properties of nano-sized vesicles made up of natural membranes are crucial to the development of stable, biocompatible nanocontainers with enhanced functional, recognition and sensing capabilities. Here we measure and compare the mechanical properties of plasma and inner membrane nanovesicles ∼80 nm in diameter obtained from disrupted yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae cells. We provide evidence of a highly deformable behaviour for these vesicles, able to support repeated wall-to-wall compressions without irreversible deformations, accompanied by a noticeably high Young's modulus (∼300 MPa) compared to that obtained for reconstituted artificial liposomes of similar size and approaching that of some virus particles. Surprisingly enough, the results are approximately similar for plasma and inner membrane nanovesicles, in spite of their different lipid compositions, especially on what concerns the ergosterol content. These results point towards an important structural role of membrane proteins in the mechanical response of natural membrane vesicles and open the perspective to their potential use as robust nanocontainers for bioapplications.

Promotion of cancer cell invasiveness and metastasis emergence caused by olfactory receptor stimulation.

Olfactory receptors (ORs) are expressed in the olfactory epithelium, where they detect odorants, but also in other tissues with additional functions. Some ORs are even overexpressed in tumor cells. In this study, we identified ORs expressed in enterochromaffin tumor cells by RT-PCR, showing that single cells can co-express several ORs. Some of the receptors identified were already reported in other tumors, but they are orphan (without known ligand), as it is the case for most of the hundreds of human ORs. Thus, genes coding for human ORs with known ligands were transfected into these cells, expressing functional heterologous ORs. The in vitro stimulation of these cells by the corresponding OR odorant agonists promoted cell invasion of collagen gels. Using LNCaP prostate cancer cells, the stimulation of the PSGR (Prostate Specific G protein-coupled Receptor), an endogenously overexpressed OR, by ß-ionone, its odorant agonist, resulted in the same phenotypic change. We also showed the involvement of a PI3 kinase γ dependent signaling pathway in this promotion of tumor cell invasiveness triggered by OR stimulation. Finally, after subcutaneous inoculation of LNCaP cells into NSG immunodeficient mice, the in vivo stimulation of these cells by the PSGR agonist ß-ionone significantly enhanced metastasis emergence and spreading.

Deciphering activation of olfactory receptors using heterologous expression in Saccharomyces cerevisiae and bioluminescence resonance energy transfer.

Hetero- and homo-oligomerization of G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) has been addressed in the past years using various approaches such as co-immunoprecipitation, fluorescence resonance energy transfer and bioluminescence resonance energy transfer (BRET). Here, we report the methodological details from a previously published study to investigate the relationships between oligomerization and activation states of olfactory receptors (ORs). This methodology combines heterologous expression of ORs in Saccharomyces cerevisiae and BRET assays on membrane fractions, in particular, upon odorant stimulation. We have demonstrated that ORs constitutively homodimerize at the plasma membrane and that high odorant concentrations promote a conformational change of the dimer, which becomes inactive. We proposed a model in which one odorant molecule binding the dimer would induce activation, while two odorant molecules, each binding one protomer of the dimer, would blunt signaling.

Automatic modeling of mammalian olfactory receptors and docking of odorants.

We present a procedure that (i) automates the homology modeling of mammalian olfactory receptors (ORs) based on the six three-dimensional (3D) structures of G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) available so far and (ii) performs the docking of odorants on these models, using the concept of colony energy to score the complexes. ORs exhibit low-sequence similarities with other GPCR and current alignment methods often fail to provide a reliable alignment. Here, we use a fold recognition technique to obtain a robust initial alignment. We then apply our procedure to a human OR that we have previously functionally characterized. The analysis of the resulting in silico complexes, supported by receptor mutagenesis and functional assays in a heterologous expression system, suggests that antagonists dock in the upper part of the binding pocket whereas agonists dock in the narrow lower part. We propose that the potency of agonists in activating receptors depends on their ability to establish tight interactions with the floor of the binding pocket. We developed a web site that allows the user to upload a GPCR sequence, choose a ligand in a library and obtain the 3D structure of the free receptor and ligand-receptor complex (http://genome.jouy.inra.fr/GPCRautomodel).

Modeling of mammalian olfactory receptors and docking of odorants.

Olfactory receptors (ORs) belong to the superfamily of G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs), the second largest class of genes after those related to immunity, and account for about 3 % of mammalian genomes. ORs are present in all multicellular organisms and represent more than half the GPCRs in mammalian species (e.g., the mouse OR repertoire contains >1,000 functional genes). ORs are mainly expressed in the olfactory epithelium where they detect odorant molecules, but they are also expressed in a number of other cells, such as sperm cells, although their functions in these cells remain mostly unknown. It has recently been reported that ORs are present in tumoral tissues where they are expressed at different levels than in healthy tissues. A specific OR is over-expressed in prostate cancer cells, and activation of this OR has been shown to inhibit the proliferation of these cells. Odorant stimulation of some of these receptors results in inhibition of cell proliferation. Even though their biological role has not yet been elucidated, these receptors might constitute new targets for diagnosis and therapeutics. It is important to understand the activation mechanism of these receptors at the molecular level, in particular to be able to predict which ligands are likely to activate a particular receptor ('deorphanization') or to design antagonists for a given receptor. In this review, we describe the in silico methodologies used to model the three-dimensional (3D) structure of ORs (in the more general framework of GPCR modeling) and to dock ligands into these 3D structures.

Relationship between homo-oligomerization of a mammalian olfactory receptor and its activation state demonstrated by bioluminescence resonance energy transfer.

G-protein-coupled receptor homo-oligomerization has been increasingly reported. However, little is known regarding the relationship between activation of the receptor and its association/conformational states. The mammalian olfactory receptors (ORs) belong to the G protein-coupled receptor superfamily. In this study, the homo-oligomerization status of the human OR1740 receptor and its involvement in receptor activation upon odorant ligand binding were addressed by co-immunoprecipitation and bioluminescence resonance energy transfer approaches using crude membranes or membranes from different cellular compartments. For the first time, our data clearly show that mammalian ORs constitutively self-associate into homodimers at the plasma membrane level. This study also demonstrates that ligand binding mediates a conformational change and promotes an inactive state of the OR dimers at high ligand concentrations. These findings support and validate our previously proposed model of OR activation/inactivation based on the tripartite odorant-binding protein-odorant-OR partnership.

Relationships between molecular structure and perceived odor quality of ligands for a human olfactory receptor.

Perception of thousands of odors by a few hundreds of olfactory receptors (ORs) results from a combinatorial coding, in which one OR recognizes multiple odorants and an odorant is recognized by a specific group of ORs. Moreover, odorants could act both as agonists or antagonists depending on the OR. This dual agonist-antagonist combinatorial coding is in good agreement with behavioral and psychophysical observations of mixture perception. We previously described the odorant repertoire of a human OR, OR1G1, identifying both agonists and antagonists. In this paper, we performed a 3D-quantitative structure-activity relationship (3D-QSAR) study of these ligands. We obtained a double-alignment model explaining previously reported experimental activities and permitting to predict novel agonists and antagonists for OR1G1. These model predictions were experimentally validated. Thereafter, we evaluated the statistical link between OR1G1 response to odorants, 3D-QSAR categorization of OR1G1 ligands, and their olfactory description. We demonstrated that OR1G1 recognizes a group of odorants that share both 3D structural and perceptual qualities. We hypothesized that OR1G1 contributes to the coding of waxy, fatty, and rose odors in humans.

[Olfactory receptors and odour coding]. / Les récepteurs des molécules odorantes et le codage olfactif.

The first step of olfactory detection involves interactions between odorant molecules and neuronal protein receptors. Odour coding results from the combinatory activation of a set of receptors and rests on their clonal expression and olfactory neurone connexion, which lead to formation of a specific sensory map in the cortex. This system, sufficient to discriminate myriads of odorants with a mere 350 different receptors, allows humans to smell molecules that are not natural (new cooking flavours, synthetic chemicals...). The extreme olfactory genome diversity explains the absence of odour semantics. Olfactory receptors are also involved in cellular chemotaxis.

Comparison of odorant specificity of two human olfactory receptors from different phylogenetic classes and evidence for antagonism.

Humans are able to detect and discriminate myriads of odorants using only several hundred olfactory receptors (ORs) classified in two major phylogenetic classes representing ORs from aquatic (class I) and terrestrial animals (class II). Olfactory perception results in a combinatorial code, in which one OR recognizes multiple odorants and different odorants are recognized by different combinations of ORs. Moreover, recent data suggest that odorants could also behave as antagonists for other ORs, thus making the combinatorial coding more complex. Here we describe the odorant repertoires of two human ORs belonging to class I and class II, respectively. For this purpose, we set up an assay based on calcium imaging in which 100 odorants were screened using air-phase odorant stimulation at physiological doses. We showed that the human class I OR52D1 is functional, exhibiting a narrow repertoire related to that of its orthologous murine OR, demonstrating than this human class I OR is not an evolutionary relic. The class II OR1G1 was revealed to be broadly tuned towards odorants of 9-10 carbon chain length, with diverse functional groups. The existence of antagonist odorants for the class II OR was also demonstrated. They are structurally related to the agonists, with shorter carbon chain length.

A molecular beacon assay for measuring base excision repair activities.

The base excision repair (BER) pathway plays a key role in protecting the genome from endogenous DNA damage. Current methods to measure BER activities are indirect and cumbersome. Here, we introduce a direct method to assay DNA excision repair that is suitable for automation and industrial use, based on the fluorescence quenching mechanism of molecular beacons. We designed a single-stranded DNA oligonucleotide labelled with a 5'-fluorescein (F) and a 3'-Dabcyl (D) in which the fluorophore, F, is held in close proximity to the quencher, D, by the stem-loop structure design of the oligonucleotide. Following removal of the modified base or incision of the oligonucleotide, the fluorophore is separated from the quencher and fluorescence can be detected as a function of time. Several modified beacons have been used to validate the assay on both cell-free extracts and purified proteins. We have further developed the method to analyze BER in cultured cells. As described, the molecular beacon-based assay can be applied to all DNA modifications processed by DNA excision/incision repair pathways. Possible applications of the assay are discussed, including high-throughput real-time DNA repair measurements both in vitro and in living cells.

Characterisation of new substrate specificities of Escherichia coli and Saccharomyces cerevisiae AP endonucleases.

Despite the progress in understanding the base excision repair (BER) pathway it is still unclear why known mutants deficient in DNA glycosylases that remove oxidised bases are not sensitive to oxidising agents. One of the back-up repair pathways for oxidative DNA damage is the nucleotide incision repair (NIR) pathway initiated by two homologous AP endonucleases: the Nfo protein from Escherichia coli and Apn1 protein from Saccharomyces cerevisiae. These endonucleases nick oxidatively damaged DNA in a DNA glycosylase-independent manner, providing the correct ends for DNA synthesis coupled to repair of the remaining 5'-dangling nucleotide. NIR provides an advantage compared to DNA glycosylase-mediated BER, because AP sites, very toxic DNA glycosylase products, do not form. Here, for the first time, we have characterised the substrate specificity of the Apn1 protein towards 5,6-dihydropyrimidine, 5-hydroxy-2'-deoxyuridine and 2,6-diamino-4-hydroxy-5-N-methylformamidopyrimidine deoxynucleotide. Detailed kinetic comparisons of Nfo, Apn1 and various DNA glycosylases using different DNA substrates were made. The apparent K(m) and kcat/K(m) values of the reactions suggest that in vitro DNA glycosylase/AP lyase is somewhat more efficient than the AP endonuclease. However, in vivo, using cell-free extracts from paraquat-induced E.coli and from S.cerevisiae, we show that NIR is one of the major pathways for repair of oxidative DNA base damage.

Characterisation of the substrate specificity of homogeneous vaccinia virus uracil-DNA glycosylase.

The decision to stop smallpox vaccination and the loss of specific immunity in a large proportion of the population could jeopardise world health due to the possibility of a natural or provoked re-emergence of smallpox. Therefore, it is mandatory to improve the current capability to prevent or treat such infections. The DNA repair protein uracil-DNA glycosylase (UNG) is one of the viral enzymes important for poxvirus pathogenesis. Consequently, the inhibition of UNG could be a rational strategy for the treatment of infections with poxviruses. In order to develop inhibitor assays for UNG, as a first step, we have characterised the recombinant vaccinia virus UNG (vUNG) and compared it with the human nuclear form (hUNG2) and catalytic fragment (hUNG) UNG. In contrast to hUNG2, vUNG is strongly inhibited in the presence of 7.5 mM MgCl(2). We have shown that highly purified vUNG is not inhibited by a specific uracil-DNA glycosylase inhibitor. Interestingly, both viral and human enzymes preferentially excise uracil when it is opposite to cytosine. The present study provides the basis for the design of specific inhibitors for vUNG.

Bleomycin resistance in mammalian cells expressing a genetic suppressor element derived from the SRPK1 gene.

The genetic suppressor element (GSE) approach allows identification of genes essential for certain cell phenotypes. To identify genes controlling the cell response to cytotoxic agents, a normalized retroviral library of randomly fragmented cDNAs from the Chinese hamster cell line DC-3F was screened for GSEs conferring resistance to bleomycin. One of these GSEs, GSE(BLM), conferring an approximately 2-fold bleomycin resistance in DC-3F cells, displayed 98% identity with an amino acid sequence located in the functional domain of human SRPK1. Using GSE(BLM) as a probe, we cloned a cDNA with a nucleotide sequence that was 76.7% identical to that of human SRPK1, whereas the corresponding amino acid sequence was 92.6% identical to that of this enzyme. When GSE(BLM), inserted in the retroviral vector pLNCX, was transduced in HeLa cells, its expression resulted in a 5-10-fold bleomycin resistance, which was abolished when these cells were further transfected with SRPK1 cDNA. In our experimental conditions, DC-3F or HeLa cells expressing GSE(BLM) did not show any detectable cross-resistance to other cytotoxic agents with various mechanisms of action. GSE(BLM), which is sense oriented in the vector, is likely to be translated in a peptide active as a dominant-negative inhibitor of SRPK1. SRPK1 is a protein serine kinase that regulates the activity of RS-proteins (arginine-serine-rich proteins), a group of nuclear factors controlling various physiological processes.