ABSTRACT
BACKGROUND: India aims to eliminate rubella and congenital rubella syndrome (CRS) by 2023. We conducted serosurveys among pregnant women to monitor the trend of rubella immunity and estimate the CRS burden in India following a nationwide measles and rubella vaccination campaign. METHODS: We surveyed pregnant women at 13 sentinel sites across India from Aug to Oct 2022 to estimate seroprevalence of rubella IgG antibodies. Using age-specific seroprevalence data from serosurveys conducted during 2017/2019 (prior to and during the vaccination campaign) and 2022 surveys (after the vaccination campaign), we developed force of infection (FOI) models and estimated incidence and burden of CRS. RESULTS: In 2022, rubella seroprevalence was 85.2% (95% CI: 84.0, 86.2). Among 10 sites which participated in both rounds of serosurveys, the seroprevalence was not different between the two periods (pooled prevalence during 2017/2019: 83.5%, 95% CI: 82.1, 84.8; prevalence during 2022: 85.1%, 95% CI: 83.8, 86.3). The estimated annual incidence of CRS during 2017/2019 in India was 218.3 (95% CI: 209.7, 226.5) per 100, 000 livebirths, resulting in 47,120 (95% CI: 45,260, 48,875) cases of CRS every year. After measles-rubella (MR) vaccination campaign, the estimated incidence of CRS declined to 5.3 (95% CI: 0, 21.2) per 100,000 livebirths, resulting in 1141 (95% CI: 0, 4,569) cases of CRS during the post MR-vaccination campaign period. CONCLUSION: The incidence of CRS in India has substantially decreased following the nationwide MR vaccination campaign. About 15% of women in childbearing age in India lack immunity to rubella and hence susceptible to rubella infection. Since there are no routine rubella vaccination opportunities for this age group under the national immunization program, it is imperative to maintain high rates of rubella vaccination among children to prevent rubella virus exposure among women of childbearing age susceptible for rubella.
ABSTRACT
Composting of dead birds with caged layer manure (CLM) and farm yard manure (FYM) was carried out to study the feasibility of composting as an alternative for disposal in Tamil Nadu State, India. The dead birds were sequentially layered with manure substrate and carbon source as per recipes formulated in mini-compost bins (4 x 4 x 4 feet). The temperature profile of both CLM and FYM group reached the peak by second week of composting and started declining steadily. The temperature profile was better during summer and monsoon and bins were able to maintain temperature above 60 degrees C (thermophilic) for 3-4 weeks. Season had no influence on attainment of peak temperature and it ranged between 51.8 and 70.4 degrees C. The persistency of thermophilic temperature (above 55 degrees C) was prolonged during summer (17.5-65 days) followed by monsoon (24-39 days) and winter (15.5-21.5 days). No putrefied or obnoxious odour or fly menace was observed during all the seasons of composting. The composting process took 107-127.5 days to finish during summer, 84.5-91 days in monsoon and 61.5-73.5 days in winter. The FYM was able to retain moisture higher (41-54% at the end of primary stage and 27.5-48.2% at the end of secondary stage) than CLM group (17.5-39.3% at primary stage and 20.4-33.5% in secondary stage). Weight reduction was more in FYM group (31.8-58.7%) than CLM group (19.3-48.6%). The volume reduction was uniform in all the seasons, it ranged between 39% and 59.3%.