BRD4 inhibition sensitizes diffuse large B-cell lymphoma cells to ferroptosis.

Diffuse large B-cell lymphoma (DLBCL), the most common form of non-Hodgkin lymphoma, is characterized by an aggressive clinical course. In approximately one-third of patients with DLBCL, first-line multiagent immunochemotherapy fails to produce a durable response. Molecular heterogeneity and apoptosis resistance pose major therapeutic challenges in DLBCL treatment. To circumvent apoptosis resistance, the induction of ferroptosis might represent a promising strategy for lymphoma therapy. In this study, a compound library, targeting epigenetic modulators, was screened to identify ferroptosis-sensitizing drugs. Strikingly, bromodomain and extra-terminal domain (BET) inhibitors sensitized cells of the germinal center B-cell-like (GCB) subtype of DLBCL to ferroptosis induction and the combination of BET inhibitors with ferroptosis inducers, such as dimethyl fumarate or RSL3, synergized in the killing of DLBCL cells in vitro and in vivo. On the molecular level, the BET protein BRD4 was found to be an essential regulator of ferroptosis suppressor protein 1 expression and thus to protect GCB-DLBCL cells from ferroptosis. Collectively, we identified and characterized BRD4 as an important player in ferroptosis suppression in GCB-DLBCL and provide a rationale for the combination of BET inhibitors with ferroptosis-inducing agents as a novel therapeutic approach for DLBCL treatment.

Dimethyl fumarate induces ferroptosis and impairs NF-κB/STAT3 signaling in DLBCL.

Despite the development of novel targeted drugs, the molecular heterogeneity of diffuse large B-cell lymphoma (DLBCL) still poses a substantial therapeutic challenge. DLBCL can be classified into at least 2 major subtypes (germinal center B cell [GCB]-like and activated B cell [ABC]-like DLBCL), each characterized by specific gene expression profiles and mutation patterns. Here we demonstrate a broad antitumor effect of dimethyl fumarate (DMF) on both DLBCL subtypes, which is mediated by the induction of ferroptosis, a form of cell death driven by the peroxidation of phospholipids. As a result of the high expression of arachidonate 5-lipoxygenase in concert with low glutathione and glutathione peroxidase 4 levels, DMF induces lipid peroxidation and thus ferroptosis, particularly in GCB DLBCL. In ABC DLBCL cells, which are addicted to NF-κB and STAT3 survival signaling, DMF treatment efficiently inhibits the activity of the IKK complex and Janus kinases. Interestingly, the BCL-2-specific BH3 mimetic ABT-199 and an inhibitor of ferroptosis suppressor protein 1 synergize with DMF in inducing cell death in DLBCL. Collectively, our findings identify the clinically approved drug DMF as a promising novel therapeutic option in the treatment of both GCB and ABC DLBCLs.

Threonine Phosphorylation of IκBζ Mediates Inhibition of Selective Proinflammatory Target Genes.

Transcription factors of the NF-κB family play a crucial role for immune responses by activating the expression of chemokines, cytokines, and antimicrobial peptides involved in pathogen clearance. IκBζ, an atypical nuclear IκB protein and selective coactivator of particular NF-κB target genes, has recently been identified as an essential regulator for skin immunity. This study discovered that IκBζ is strongly induced in keratinocytes that sense the fungal glucan zymosan A. Additionally, IκBζ is essential for the optimal expression of proinflammatory genes, such as IL6, CXCL5, IL1B, or S100A9. Moreover, this study found that IκBζ was not solely regulated on the transcriptional level but also by phosphorylation events. This study identified several IκBζ phosphorylation sites, including a conserved cluster of threonine residues located in the N-terminus of the protein, which can be phosphorylated by MAPKs. Surprisingly, IκBζ phosphorylation at this threonine cluster promoted the recruitment of histone deacetylase 1 to specific target gene promoters and, thus, negatively controlled transcription. Taken together, this study proposes a model of how an antifungal response translates to the expression of proinflammatory cytokines and highlights an additional layer of complexity in the regulation of the NF-κB responses in keratinocytes.

Targeting chronic NFAT activation with calcineurin inhibitors in diffuse large B-cell lymphoma.

Diffuse large B-cell lymphoma (DLBCL) represents the most common adult lymphoma and can be divided into 2 major molecular subtypes: the germinal center B-cell-like and the aggressive activated B-cell-like (ABC) DLBCL. Previous studies suggested that chronic B-cell receptor signaling and increased NF-κB activation contribute to ABC DLBCL survival. Here we show that the activity of the transcription factor NFAT is chronically elevated in both DLBCL subtypes. Surprisingly, NFAT activation is independent of B-cell receptor signaling, but mediated by an increased calcium flux and calcineurin-mediated dephosphorylation of NFAT. Intriguingly, although NFAT is activated in both DLBCL subtypes, long-term calcineurin inhibition with cyclosporin A or FK506, both clinically approved drugs, triggers potent cytotoxicity specifically in ABC DLBCL cells. The antitumor effects of calcineurin inhibitors are associated with the reduced expression of c-Jun, interleukin-6, and interleukin-10, which were identified as NFAT target genes that are particularly important for the survival of ABC DLBCL. Furthermore, calcineurin blockade synergized with BCL-2 and MCL-1 inhibitors in killing ABC DLBCL cells. Collectively, these findings identify constitutive NFAT signaling as a crucial functional driver of ABC DLBCL and highlight calcineurin inhibition as a novel strategy for the treatment of this aggressive lymphoma subtype.

Release of Immunomodulatory Ebola Virus Glycoprotein-Containing Microvesicles Is Suppressed by Tetherin in a Species-Specific Manner.

The Ebola virus glycoprotein (EBOV-GP) forms GP-containing microvesicles, so-called virosomes, which are secreted from GP-expressing cells. However, determinants of GP-virosome release and their functionality are poorly understood. We characterized GP-mediated virosome formation and delineated the role of the antiviral factor tetherin (BST2, CD317) in this process. Residues in the EBOV-GP receptor-binding domain (RBD) promote GP-virosome secretion, while tetherin suppresses GP-virosomes by interactions involving the GP-transmembrane domain. Tetherin from multiple species interfered with GP-virosome release, and tetherin from the natural fruit bat reservoir showed the highest inhibitory activity. Moreover, analyses of GP from various ebolavirus strains, including the EBOV responsible for the West African epidemic, revealed the most efficient GP-virosome formation by highly pathogenic ebolaviruses. Finally, EBOV-GP-virosomes were immunomodulatory and acted as decoys for EBOV-neutralizing antibodies. Our results indicate that GP-virosome formation might be a determinant of EBOV immune evasion and pathogenicity, which is suppressed by tetherin.

MALT1 Protease Activity Controls the Expression of Inflammatory Genes in Keratinocytes upon Zymosan Stimulation.

The protease activity of the paracaspase mucosa-associated lymphoid tissue lymphoma translocation gene 1 (MALT1) plays an important role in antigen receptor-mediated lymphocyte activation by controlling the activity of the transcription factor nuclear factor-κB and is thus essential for the expression of inflammatory target genes. MALT1 is not only present in cells of the hematopoietic lineage, but is ubiquitously expressed. Here we report that stimulation with zymosan or Staphylococcus aureus induced MALT1 protease activity in human primary keratinocytes. Inhibition of the Src family of kinases or novel protein kinase C isoforms as well as silencing of CARMA2 or BCL10 interfered with activation of MALT1 protease. Silencing or inhibition of MALT1 protease strongly decreased the expression of important inflammatory genes such as TNFα, IL-17C, CXCL8 and HBD-2. MALT1-inhibited cells were unable to mount an antimicrobial response upon zymosan stimulation or phorbolester/ionomycin treatment, demonstrating a central role of MALT1 protease activity in keratinocyte immunity and suggesting MALT1 as a potential target in inflammatory skin diseases.

Absence of BiP co-chaperone DNAJC3 causes diabetes mellitus and multisystemic neurodegeneration.

Diabetes mellitus and neurodegeneration are common diseases for which shared genetic factors are still only partly known. Here, we show that loss of the BiP (immunoglobulin heavy-chain binding protein) co-chaperone DNAJC3 leads to diabetes mellitus and widespread neurodegeneration. We investigated three siblings with juvenile-onset diabetes and central and peripheral neurodegeneration, including ataxia, upper-motor-neuron damage, peripheral neuropathy, hearing loss, and cerebral atrophy. Exome sequencing identified a homozygous stop mutation in DNAJC3. Screening of a diabetes database with 226,194 individuals yielded eight phenotypically similar individuals and one family carrying a homozygous DNAJC3 deletion. DNAJC3 was absent in fibroblasts from all affected subjects in both families. To delineate the phenotypic and mutational spectrum and the genetic variability of DNAJC3, we analyzed 8,603 exomes, including 506 from families affected by diabetes, ataxia, upper-motor-neuron damage, peripheral neuropathy, or hearing loss. This analysis revealed only one further loss-of-function allele in DNAJC3 and no further associations in subjects with only a subset of the features of the main phenotype. Our findings demonstrate that loss-of-function DNAJC3 mutations lead to a monogenic, recessive form of diabetes mellitus in humans. Moreover, they present a common denominator for diabetes and widespread neurodegeneration. This complements findings from mice in which knockout of Dnajc3 leads to diabetes and modifies disease in a neurodegenerative model of Marinesco-Sjögren syndrome.

Late stage infection in sleeping sickness.

At the turn of the 19(th) century, trypanosomes were identified as the causative agent of sleeping sickness and their presence within the cerebrospinal fluid of late stage sleeping sickness patients was described. However, no definitive proof of how the parasites reach the brain has been presented so far. Analyzing electron micrographs prepared from rodent brains more than 20 days after infection, we present here conclusive evidence that the parasites first enter the brain via the choroid plexus from where they penetrate the epithelial cell layer to reach the ventricular system. Adversely, no trypanosomes were observed within the parenchyma outside blood vessels. We also show that brain infection depends on the formation of long slender trypanosomes and that the cerebrospinal fluid as well as the stroma of the choroid plexus is a hostile environment for the survival of trypanosomes, which enter the pial space including the Virchow-Robin space via the subarachnoid space to escape degradation. Our data suggest that trypanosomes do not intend to colonize the brain but reside near or within the glia limitans, from where they can re-populate blood vessels and disrupt the sleep wake cycles.

Functional characterization of three aquaglyceroporins from Trypanosoma brucei in osmoregulation and glycerol transport.

Previous studies using bloodstream form Trypanosoma brucei have shown that glycerol transport in this parasite occurs via specific membrane proteins, namely a glycerol transporter and glycerol channels [1]. Later, we cloned, expressed and characterized the transport properties of all three aquaglyceroporins (AQP1-3) [2], which were found permeable for water, glycerol and other small uncharged solutes like dihydroxyacetone [3]. Here, we report on the cellular localization of TbAQP1 and TbAQP3 in bloodstream form trypanosomes. Indirect immunofluorescence analysis showed that TbAQP1 is exclusively localized in the flagellar membrane, whereas TbAQP3 was found in the plasma membrane.In addition, we analyzed the functions of all 3 AQPs, using an inducible inheritable double-stranded RNA interference methodology. All AQP knockdown cell lines were still able to survive hypo-osmotic stress conditions, except AQP2 knockdown parasites. Depleted TbAQP2 negatively impacted cell growth and the regulatory volume recovery, whereas AQP1 und 3 knockdown trypanosomes displayed phenotypes consistent with their localization in external membranes. A simultaneous knockdown of all 3 AQPs showed that the cells were able to substitute the missing glycerol uptake capability through a putative glycerol transporter.

Kinetoplastida: model organisms for simple autophagic pathways?

Phylogenetic analyses based on defined proteins or different RNA species have revealed that the order kinetoplastida belongs to the early-branching eukaryotes and may thus contain organisms in which complex cellular events are easier to analyze. This view was further supported by results from a bioinformatic survey that suggested that nearly half of the autophagy-related proteins existent in yeast are missing in trypanosomatids. On the other hand, these organisms have evolved a highly sophisticated machinery to escape from the different host immune-response strategies and have learned to cope with extremely variable environmental conditions by morphological and functional reorganization of the cell. For both the stress response and the differentiation processes, autophagy seems to be an indispensable prerequisite. So far autophagy has not been systematically investigated in trypanosomatids. Here we present technical information on how to handle the different parasites belonging to this order and give an overview of the current status of autophagy research in these organisms.

Spermine isolated and identified as the major trypanocidal compound from the snake venom of Eristocophis macmahoni causes autophagy in Trypanosoma brucei.

The snake venom from the leaf-nosed viper Eristocophis macmahoni was analyzed regarding its toxic effects on the bloodstream form of Trypanosoma brucei. A considerable trypanocidal effect was measured with an IC5 value of 186 ng/ml in bloodstream form parasites. Following several high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) separation steps, the major trypanocidal activity was assigned to a single fraction by in vitro toxicity assays. Analysis by off-line ESI-MS(n) revealed an m/z value of 202.2 for the precursor ion and fragment ions of m/z=129.1 (MS2) and 112.1 (MS3), respectively, clearly corresponding to the molecular mass and the fragmentation pattern of the polyamine spermine. Quantification of spermine within the viper venom using an on-line hydrophilic interaction chromatography (HILIC) ESI-MS method revealed that this compound constituted approximately 1% of the dry venom mass. The polyamine oxidase activity in the fetal calf serum used for cultivation was responsible for a trypanocidal effect of pure spermine in the low micromolar range, whereas the antitrypanosomal activity of crude snake venom was virtually independent from serum, suggesting the oxidation of spermine by intrinsic venom components. Using fetal calf serum, spermine was shown to induce autophagy in the parasites using transmission electron microscopy (TEM).

Troglitazone induces differentiation in Trypanosoma brucei.

Trypanosoma brucei, a protozoan parasite causing sleeping sickness, is transmitted by the tsetse fly and undergoes a complex lifecycle including several defined stages within the insect vector and its mammalian host. In the latter, differentiation from the long slender to the short stumpy form is induced by a yet unknown factor of trypanosomal origin. Here we describe that some thiazolidinediones are also able to induce differentiation. In higher eukaryotes, thiazolidinediones are involved in metabolism and differentiation processes mainly by binding to the intracellular receptor peroxisome proliferator activated receptor gamma. Our studies focus on the effects of troglitazone on bloodstream form trypanosomes. Differentiation was monitored using mitochondrial markers (membrane potential, succinate dehydrogenase activity, inhibition of oxygen uptake by KCN, amount of cytochrome transcripts), morphological changes (Transmission EM and light microscopy), and transformation experiments (loss of the Variant Surface Glycoprotein coat and increase of dihydroliponamide dehydrogenase activity). To further investigate the mechanisms responsible for these changes, microarray analyses were performed, showing an upregulation of expression site associated gene 8 (ESAG8), a potential differentiation regulator.

HIF-1-dependent repression of equilibrative nucleoside transporter (ENT) in hypoxia.

Extracellular adenosine (Ado) has been implicated as central signaling molecule during conditions of limited oxygen availability (hypoxia), regulating physiologic outcomes as diverse as vascular leak, leukocyte activation, and accumulation. Presently, the molecular mechanisms that elevate extracellular Ado during hypoxia are unclear. In the present study, we pursued the hypothesis that diminished uptake of Ado effectively enhances extracellular Ado signaling. Initial studies indicated that the half-life of Ado was increased by as much as fivefold after exposure of endothelia to hypoxia. Examination of expressional levels of the equilibrative nucleoside transporter (ENT)1 and ENT2 revealed a transcriptionally dependent decrease in mRNA, protein, and function in endothelia and epithelia. Examination of the ENT1 promoter identified a hypoxia inducible factor 1 (HIF-1)-dependent repression of ENT1 during hypoxia. Using in vitro and in vivo models of Ado signaling, we revealed that decreased Ado uptake promotes vascular barrier and dampens neutrophil tissue accumulation during hypoxia. Moreover, epithelial Hif1alpha mutant animals displayed increased epithelial ENT1 expression. Together, these results identify transcriptional repression of ENT as an innate mechanism to elevate extracellular Ado during hypoxia.