A Bayesian Probabilistic Framework for Identification of Individuals with Dyslexia.

Purpose: Bayesian-based models for diagnosis are common in medicine but have not been incorporated into identification models for dyslexia. The purpose of the present study was to evaluate Bayesian identification models that included a broader set of predictors and that capitalized on recent developments in modeling the prevalence of dyslexia. Method: Model-based meta-analysis was used to create a composite correlation matrix that included common predictors of dyslexia such as decoding, phonological awareness, oral language, but also included response to intervention (RTI) and family risk for dyslexia. Bayesian logistic regression models were used to predict poor reading comprehension, unexpectedly poor reading comprehension, poor decoding, and unexpectedly poor decoding, all at two levels of severity. Results: Most predictors made independent and substantial contributions to prediction, supporting models of dyslexia that rely on multiple rather than single indicators. RTI was the strongest predictor of poor reading comprehension and unexpectedly poor reading comprehension. Phonological awareness was the strongest predictor of poor decoding and unexpectedly poor decoding, followed closely by family risk. Conclusion: Bayesian-based models are a promising tool for implementing multiple-indicator models of identification. Ideas for improving prediction and implications for theory and practice are discussed.

Transgenerational transmission of aspartame-induced anxiety and changes in glutamate-GABA signaling and gene expression in the amygdala.

We report the effects of aspartame on anxiety-like behavior, neurotransmitter signaling and gene expression in the amygdala, a brain region associated with the regulation of anxiety and fear responses. C57BL/6 mice consumed drinking water containing 0.015% or 0.03% aspartame, a dose equivalent of 8 to 15% of the FDA recommended maximum human daily intake, or plain drinking water. Robust anxiety-like behavior (evaluated using open field test and elevated zero maze) was observed in male and female mice consuming the aspartame-containing water. Diazepam, an allosteric modulator of the GABA-A receptor, alleviated the anxiety-like behavior. RNA sequencing of the amygdala followed by KEGG biological pathway analysis of differentially expressed genes showed glutamatergic and GABAergic synapse pathways as significantly enriched. Quantitative PCR showed upregulation of mRNA for the glutamate NMDA receptor subunit 2D (Grin2d) and metabotropic receptor 4 (Grm4) and downregulation of the GABA-A receptor associated protein (Gabarap) mRNA. Thus, taken together, our diazepam and gene expression data show that aspartame consumption shifted the excitation-inhibition equilibrium in the amygdala toward excitation. Even more strikingly, the anxiety-like behavior, its response to diazepam, and changes in amygdala gene expression were transmitted to male and female offspring in two generations descending from the aspartame-exposed males. Extrapolation of the findings to humans suggests that aspartame consumption at doses below the FDA recommended maximum daily intake may produce neurobehavioral changes in aspartame-consuming individuals and their descendants. Thus, human population at risk of aspartame's potential mental health effects may be larger than current expectations, which only include aspartame-consuming individuals.

Data Envelopment Analysis (DEA) in the Educational Sciences.

Many of the analytical models commonly used in educational research often aim to maximize explained variance and identify variable importance within models. These models are useful for understanding general ideas and trends, but give limited insight into the individuals within said models. Data envelopment analysis (DEA), is a method rooted in organizational management that makes such insights possible. Unlike models alluded to above, DEA does not explain variance. Instead, it explains how efficiently an individual utilizes their inputs to produce outputs, and identifies which input is not being utilized optimally. This paper provides a history and usages of DEA from fields outside of education, and describes the math and processes behind it. This paper then extends DEA's usage into the educational field using a study on child reading ability. Using students from the Project KIDS dataset (n=1987), DEA is demonstrated using a simple view of reading framework, identifying individual efficiency levels in using reading-based skills to achieve reading comprehension, determining which skills are being underutilized, and classifying new subsets of readers. New subsets of readers were identified using this method, with implications for more targeted interventions.

Predictors of Item Accuracy on the Test de Vocabulario en Imagenes Peabody for Spanish-English Speaking Children in the United States.

This study examines the response patterns of 288 Spanish-English dual language learners on a standardized test of receptive Spanish vocabulary. Investigators analyzed responses to 54 items on the Test de Vocabulario en Imagenes (TVIP) (Dunn & Dunn, 2007) focusing on differential accuracy on items influenced by a) cross-linguistic overlap, b) context (home/school), and c) word frequency in Spanish. The response patterns showed cross-linguistic overlap in phonology was a significant predictor of accuracy at the item level. After accounting for item number (expected difficulty level), context of exposure was a significant predictor of the likelihood of obtaining a correct response. Spanish word frequency was not a significant predictor of accuracy. The current findings substantiate the influence of cross-linguistic overlap in phonology and context on Spanish vocabulary recognition by Spanish-English speaking children. Children were more likely to obtain correct responses on lexical items that were associated with the home context. Researchers and practitioners should consider phonological cross-linguistic overlap in addition to context of word exposure and word frequency when designing and utilizing vocabulary assessments for children from linguistic minority backgrounds.

Long-term functional alterations following prenatal GLP-1R activation.

Evidence supporting the use of glucagon-like peptide-1 (GLP-1) analogues to pharmacologically treat disorders beyond type 2 diabetes and obesity is increasing. However, little is known about how activation of the GLP-1 receptor (GLP-1R) during pregnancy affects maternal and offspring outcomes. We treated female C57Bl/6 J mice prior to conception and throughout gestation with a long-lasting GLP-1R agonist, Exendin-4. While GLP-1R activation has significant effects on food and drug reward, depression, locomotor activity, and cognition in adults, we found few changes in these domains in exendin-4-exposed offspring. Repeated injections of Exendin-4 had minimal effects on the dams and may have enhanced maternal care. Offspring exposed to the drug weighed significantly more than their control counterparts during the preweaning period and demonstrated alterations in anxiety-like outcomes, which indicate a developmental role for GLP-1R modulation in the stress response that may be sex-specific.

Measures of Early Social Communication and Vocabulary Production to Predict Language Outcomes at Two and Three Years in Late-Talking Toddlers.

BACKGROUND: Late talkers are a heterogeneous group of toddlers and reliable predictors of persistent language delay have been elusive. The purpose of this study was to determine the extent to which early social communication and vocabulary production predicted variance in language outcomes at 2 and 3 years of age. METHODS: Participants were 408 typically developing and late-talking toddlers who completed the Communication and Symbolic Behavior Scales Caregiver Questionnaire and Behavior Sample (CSBS CQ and CSBS BS) at a mean of 20 months, the Language Development Survey (LDS) at a mean of 24 months, and the Mullen Scales of Early Learning (MSEL) at a mean of 25 months. A subgroup of 198 children completed a second MSEL at 3 years of age. Associations among the LDS, CSBS CQ, CSBS BS, and MSEL were examined using correlational and hierarchical linear regression analyses. Logistic regression was used to examine each measure's contribution to predicting language delay at 2 and 3 years. RESULTS: Moderate to large correlations were observed among all variables. The LDS, CSBS CQ, and CSBS BS added unique contributions to the prediction of 2- and 3-year expressive and receptive language outcomes. Measures of speech and vocabulary production were the strongest predictors of language outcomes at age 2. At age 3, social and symbolic communication played a more significant role in accounting for variance in expressive and receptive language outcome. A similar pattern emerged for the categorical prediction of language delay. CONCLUSIONS: Measures of social communication between 18-21 months added important information to predicting language outcomes at 2 and 3 years, above and beyond parent-reported expressive vocabulary production measured at 24 months, with small effect sizes overall. Implications for identifying younger children who are at risk for continued language delay and recommendations for referral to early intervention programs are discussed.

Effects of Developmental Nicotine Exposure on Frontal Cortical GABA-to-Non-GABA Neuron Ratio and Novelty-Seeking Behavior.

Cigarette smoking during pregnancy is a major public health concern, resulting in detrimental health effects in the mother and her offspring. The adverse behavioral consequences for children include increased risk for attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, working memory deficits, epilepsy, novelty-seeking, and risk-taking behaviors. Some of these behavioral conditions are consistent with an imbalance in frontal cortical excitatory (glutamate) and inhibitory (GABA) neurotransmitter signaling. We used a GAD67-GFP knock-in mouse model to examine if developmental nicotine exposure alters frontal cortical GABA neuron numbers, GABA-to-non-GABA neuron ratio and behavioral phenotypes. Female mice were exposed to nicotine (100 or 200 µg/mL) in drinking water beginning 3 weeks prior to breeding and until 3 weeks postpartum. Male and female offspring were examined beginning at 60 days of age. The nicotine exposure produced dose-dependent decreases in GABA-to-non-GABA neuron ratios in the prefrontal and medial prefrontal cortices without perturbing the intrinsic differences in cortical thickness and laminar distribution of GABA or non-GABA neurons between these regions. A significant increase in exploratory behavior and a shift toward "approach" in the approach-avoidance paradigm were also observed. Thus, developmental nicotine exposure shifts the cortical excitation-inhibition balance toward excitation and produces behavioral changes consistent with novelty-seeking behavior.

Combining Old and New for Better Understanding and Predicting Dyslexia.

Despite decades of research, it has been difficult to achieve consensus on a definition of common learning disabilities such as dyslexia. This lack of consensus represents a fundamental problem for the field. Our approach to addressing this issue is to use model-based meta-analyses and Bayesian models with informative priors to combine the results of a large number of studies for the purpose of yielding a more stable and well-supported conceptualization of reading disability. A prerequisite to implementing these models is establishing informative priors for dyslexia. We illustrate a new approach for doing so based on the known distribution of the difference between correlated variables, and use this distribution to determine the proportion of poor readers whose poor reading is unexpected (i.e., likely to be due to dyslexia) as opposed to expected.

Cluster randomized trial of the classroom SCERTS intervention for elementary students with autism spectrum disorder.

OBJECTIVE: This cluster randomized trial (CRT) evaluated the efficacy of the Classroom Social, Communication, Emotional Regulation, and Transactional Support (SCERTS) Intervention (CSI) compared with usual school-based education with autism training modules (ATM). METHOD: Sixty schools with 197 students with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) in 129 classrooms were randomly assigned to CSI or ATM. Mean student age was 6.79 years (SD 1.05) and 81.2% were male. CSI teachers were trained on the model and provided coaching throughout the school year to assist with implementation. A CRT, with students nested within general and special education classrooms nested within schools, was used to evaluate student outcomes. RESULTS: The CSI group showed significantly better outcomes than the ATM group on observed measures of classroom active engagement with respect to social interaction. The CSI group also had significantly better outcomes on measures of adaptive communication, social skills, and executive functioning with Cohen's d effect sizes ranging from 0.31 to 0.45. CONCLUSION: These findings support the preliminary efficacy of CSI, a classroom-based, teacher-implemented intervention for improving active engagement, adaptive communication, social skills, executive functioning, and problem behavior within a heterogeneous sample of students with ASD. This makes a significant contribution to the literature by demonstrating efficacy of a classroom-based teacher-implemented intervention with a heterogeneous group of students with ASD using both observed and reported measures. (PsycINFO Database Record

Factor structure and aetiological architecture of the BRIEF: A twin study.

Executive function is a broad construct that encompasses various processes involved in goal-directed behaviour in non-routine situations (Banich, 2009). The present study uses a sample of 560 5- to 16-year-old twin pairs (M = 11.14, SD = 2.53): 219 monozygotic twin pairs (114 female; 105 male) and 341 dizygotic twin pairs (136 female, 107 male; 98 opposite sex) to extend prior literature by providing information about the factor structure and the genetic and environmental architecture of the Behavior Rating Inventory of Executive Function (BRIEF; Gioia et al., 2000, Child Neuropsychol., 6, 235; Gioia et al., 2000, Behavior rating inventory of executive function, Lutz, FL: Psychological Assessment Resources), a multifaceted rating scale of everyday executive functions. Phenotypic results revealed a 9-scale, 3-factor model best represents the BRIEF structure within the current sample. Results of the genetically sensitive analyses indicated the presence of rater bias/contrast effects for the Initiate, Working Memory, and Task-Monitor scales. Additive genetic and non-shared environmental influences were present for the Initiate, Plan/Organize, Organization of Materials, Shift, and Monitor and Self-Monitor scales. Influences on Emotional Control were solely environmental. Interestingly, the aetiological architecture observed was similar to that of performance-based measures of executive function. This observed similarity provided additional evidence for the usefulness of the BRIEF as a measure of 'everyday' executive function.

Consequences of Misspecifying Levels of Variance in Cross-Classified Longitudinal Data Structures.

The purpose of this study was to determine if modeling school and classroom effects was necessary in estimating passage reading growth across elementary grades. Longitudinal data from 8367 students in 2989 classrooms in 202 Reading First schools were used in this study and were obtained from the Progress Monitoring and Reporting Network maintained by the Florida Center for Reading Research. Oral reading fluency (ORF) was assessed four times per school year. Five growth models with varying levels of data (student, classroom, and school) were estimated in order to determine which structures were necessary to correctly partition variance and accurately estimate standard errors for growth parameters. Because the results illustrate that not modeling higher-level clustering inflated lower-level variance estimates and in some cases led to biased standard errors, the authors recommend the practice of including classroom cross-classification and school nesting when predicting longitudinal student outcomes.

Reading development in young children: genetic and environmental influences.

The development of reading skills in typical students is commonly described as a rapid growth across early grades of active reading education, with a slowing down of growth as active instruction tapers. This study examined the extent to which genetics and environments influence these growth rates. Participants were 371 twin pairs, aged approximately 6 through 12, from the Western Reserve Reading Project. Development of word-level reading, reading comprehension, and rapid naming was examined using genetically sensitive latent quadratic growth curve modeling. Results confirmed the developmental trajectory described in the phenotypic literature. Furthermore, the same shared environmental influences were related to early reading skills and subsequent growth, but genetic influences on these factors were unique.

Predicting individual differences in reading comprehension: a twin study.

We examined the Simple View of reading from a behavioral genetic perspective. Two aspects of word decoding (phonological decoding and word recognition), two aspects of oral language skill (listening comprehension and vocabulary), and reading comprehension were assessed in a twin sample at age 9. Using latent factor models, we found that overlap among phonological decoding, word recognition, listening comprehension, vocabulary, and reading comprehension was primarily due to genetic influences. Shared environmental influences accounted for associations among word recognition, listening comprehension, vocabulary, and reading comprehension. Independent of phonological decoding and word recognition, there was a separate genetic link between listening comprehension, vocabulary, and reading comprehension and a specific shared environmental link between vocabulary and reading comprehension. There were no residual genetic or environmental influences on reading comprehension. The findings provide evidence for a genetic basis to the "Simple View" of reading.

Conversational language use as a predictor of early reading development: language history as a moderating variable.

PURPOSE: The present study examined the nature of concurrent and predictive associations between conversational language use and reading development during early school-age years. METHOD: Language and reading data from 380 twins in the Western Reserve Reading Project were examined via phenotypic correlations and multilevel modeling on exploratory latent factors. RESULTS: In the concurrent prediction of children's early reading abilities, a significant interaction emerged between children's conversational language abilities and their history of reported language difficulties. Specifically, conversational language concurrently predicted reading development above and beyond variance accounted for by formal vocabulary scores, but only in children with a history of reported language difficulties. A similar trend was noted in predicting reading skills 1 year later, but the interaction was not statistically significant. CONCLUSIONS: Findings suggest a more nuanced view of the association between spoken language and early reading than is commonly proposed. One possibility is that children with and without a history of reported language difficulties rely on different skills, or the same skills to differing degrees, when completing early reading-related tasks. Future studies should examine the causal link between conversational language and early reading specifically in children with a history of reported language difficulties.

Conduct problems, IQ, and household chaos: a longitudinal multi-informant study.

BACKGROUND: We tested the hypothesis that household chaos would be associated with lower child IQ and more child conduct problems concurrently and longitudinally over two years while controlling for housing conditions, parent education/IQ, literacy environment, parental warmth/negativity, and stressful events. METHODS: The sample included 302 families with same-sex twins (58% female) in Kindergarten/1st grade at the first assessment. Parents' and observers' ratings were gathered, with some collected over a two-year period. RESULTS: Chaos varied widely. There was substantial mother-father agreement and longitudinal stability. Chaos covaried with poorer housing conditions, lower parental education/IQ, poorer home literacy environment, higher stress, higher negativity and lower warmth. Chaos statistically predicted lower IQ and more conduct problems, beyond the effects of other home environment factors. CONCLUSIONS: Even with other home environment factors controlled, higher levels of chaos were linked concurrently with lower child IQ, and concurrently and longitudinally with more child conduct problems. Parent self-reported chaos represents an important aspect of housing and family functioning, with respect to children's cognitive and behavioral functioning.

Environmental influences on the longitudinal covariance of expressive vocabulary: measuring the home literacy environment in a genetically sensitive design.

BACKGROUND: Despite the well-replicated relationship between the home literacy environment and expressive vocabulary, few studies have examined the extent to which the home literacy environment is associated with the development of early vocabulary ability in the context of genetic influences. This study examined the influence of the home literacy environment on the longitudinal covariance of expressive vocabulary within a genetically sensitive design. METHODS: Participants were drawn from the Western Reserve Reading Project, a longitudinal twin project of 314 twin pairs based in Ohio. Twins were assessed via three annual home visits during early elementary school; expressive vocabulary was measured via the Boston Naming Test (BNT), and the Home Literacy Environment (HLE) was assessed using mothers' report. RESULTS: The heritability of the BNT was moderate and significant at each measurement occasion, h(2) = .29-.49, as were the estimates of the shared environment, c(2) = .27-.39. HLE accounted for between 6-10% of the total variance in each year of vocabulary assessment. Furthermore, 7-9% of the total variance of the stability over time in BNT was accounted for by covariance in the home literacy environment. CONCLUSIONS: These results indicate that aspects of the home literacy environment, as reported by mothers, account for some of the shared environmental variance associated with expressive vocabulary in school aged children.

Reading First kindergarten classroom instruction and students' growth in phonological awareness and letter naming-decoding fluency.

This study investigated the role of the amount, content, and implementation of reading instruction provided by 17 kindergarten teachers in eight Reading First elementary schools as it related to students' progress (n=286 students) on early reading assessments of phonological awareness and letter naming-decoding fluency. Children's phonological awareness and letter naming-decoding fluency grew significantly from fall to spring. On average, across the three 60 min observations, teachers provided over 30 min a day of phonological awareness and phonics instruction and 15 min a day of vocabulary and comprehension instruction. Global ratings of instructional quality revealed two implementation factors: explicit and individualized implementation and meaningful interactions around text. Hierarchical linear modeling revealed that the amounts of specific instructional content, as well as how this instruction was implemented, was related to students' letter knowledge and phonological awareness skill growth.

Longitudinal genetic analysis of early reading: The Western Reserve Reading Project.

We examined the genetic and environmental contribution to the stability and instability of reading outcomes in early elementary school using a sample of 283 twin pairs drawn from the Western Reserve Reading Project. Twins were assessed across two measurement occasions. In Wave 1, children were either in kindergarten or first grade. Wave 2 assessments were conducted one year later. Results suggested substantial genetic stability across measurement occasions. Additionally, shared environmental influences also accounted for stability, particularly for variables more closely tied to direct instruction such as phonological awareness, letter knowledge, and word knowledge. There was also evidence for independent genetic and shared environmental effects, suggesting that new sources of variance may emerge as the demands of school change and children begin to acquire early reading skills.