Physician's perceptions regarding the pharmaceutical industry: a Brazilian national study.

OBJECTIVE: The objective of this study was to investigate the newly graduated physicians' attitudes and perceptions regarding the medical relationship with the pharmaceutical industry and identify the sociodemographic patterns related to such thinking. METHODS: A structured questionnaire was administered to 4,601 participants selected from a pool of 16,323 physicians who were registered with one of the 27 Regional Medical Councils of Brazil in 2015. Answers were analyzed using two stratification variables: type of medical school (public vs. private) and the sex of the respondents. RESULTS: Out of the participants, 61.8% believed that industry funding could support medical conferences and education, and 48.4% felt that small gifts and conference travel funding were acceptable. Conversely, 64.7% disagreed with industry-sponsored social events. Views on whether pharmaceutical representatives' visits influenced prescriptions were divided. Statistically significant differences were observed between genders and medical school types, with men and private school graduates being more accepting of certain industry interactions. CONCLUSION: The study highlights the nuanced attitudes of new doctors toward industry relationships, indicating the need for clearer ethical guidelines and education in medical schools to align practice with evolving societal values.

Physician's perceptions regarding the pharmaceutical industry: a Brazilian national study

OBJECTIVE: The objective of this study was to investigate the newly graduated physicians' attitudes and perceptions regarding the medical relationship with the pharmaceutical industry and identify the sociodemographic patterns related to such thinking. METHODS: A structured questionnaire was administered to 4,601 participants selected from a pool of 16,323 physicians who were registered with one of the 27 Regional Medical Councils of Brazil in 2015. Answers were analyzed using two stratification variables: type of medical school (public vs. private) and the sex of the respondents. RESULTS: Out of the participants, 61.8% believed that industry funding could support medical conferences and education, and 48.4% felt that small gifts and conference travel funding were acceptable. Conversely, 64.7% disagreed with industry-sponsored social events. Views on whether pharmaceutical representatives' visits influenced prescriptions were divided. Statistically significant differences were observed between genders and medical school types, with men and private school graduates being more accepting of certain industry interactions. CONCLUSION: The study highlights the nuanced attitudes of new doctors toward industry relationships, indicating the need for clearer ethical guidelines and education in medical schools to align practice with evolving societal values.

What happened to health labour markets during COVID-19? Insights from the analysis of cross-sectional survey data on the perceptions of medical doctors in Brazil.

OBJECTIVES: To examine physicians' perceptions of changing employment opportunities in Brazil, and gain an insight into labour markets in low/middle-income countries (LMICs) during the pandemic. STUDY DESIGN: Descriptive and inferential analysis of a quantitative dataset from a representative cross-sectional survey of physicians of two Brazilian states. SETTINGS: São Paulo and Maranhão states in Brazil. PARTICIPANTS: Representative sample of 1183 physicians. OUTCOME MEASURES: We estimated prevalence and 95% CIs for physicians' perceptions of changes in demand and supply of doctors, as well as changes in prices of medical services for facilities of practice in the two states, stratified by public, private and dual-practice physicians. RESULTS: Most doctors reported increased job opportunities in the public sector (54.9%, 95% CI 52.0% to 57.7%), particularly in Maranhão state (65.0%, 95% CI 60.9% to 68.9%). For the private sector, increased opportunities were reported only in large private hospitals (46.7%, 95% CI 43.9% to 49.6%) but not in smaller clinics. We recorded perceptions of slight increases in availability of doctors in Maranhão, particularly in the public sector (51.4%, 95% CI 43.2% to 59.5%). Younger doctors recounted increased vacancies in the public sector (64%, 95% CI 58.1% to 68.1%), older doctors only in walk-in clinics in Maranhão (47.5%, 95% CI 39.9% to 55.1%). Those working directly with patients with COVID-19 saw opportunities in public hospitals (65%, 95% CI 62.3% to 68.4%) and in large private ones (55%, 95% CI 51.8% to 59.1%). CONCLUSIONS: Our findings hint that health labour markets in LMICs may not necessarily shrink during epidemics, and that impacts will depend on the balance of public and private services in national health systems.

Perception of newly graduated physicians toward ethical education in medical schools: a Brazilian cross-sectional nationwide study.

OBJECTIVE: The objective of this study was to evaluate fresh medical graduates' perceptions regarding the general aspects of ethics teaching in Brazilian medical schools. METHODS: A structured questionnaire was applied to 4,601 participants among the 16,323 physicians who registered in one of the 27 Regional Medical Councils of Brazil in 2015. Answers to four questions regarding general aspects of ethics education in medical school were analyzed. Sampling procedures involved two stratification variables: legal nature (public vs. private) of medical schools and monthly household income higher than 10 minimum wages. RESULTS: A large percentage of the participants had witnessed unethical behaviors during contact with patients (62.0%), toward coworkers (51.5%), and in relationships with patients' families (34.4%) over the course of their medical training. Even though most of the responders (72.0%) totally agreed that patient-physician relationship and humanities education were part of their medical school curriculum, important topics such as conflicts of interest and end-of-life education were not satisfactorily addressed in the participants' medical training. Statistically significant differences were found between the answers of public and private school graduates. CONCLUSION: Despite great efforts to improve medical ethics education, our findings suggest the persistence of deficits and inadequacies in the ethics training currently given in medical schools in Brazil. Further modifications in ethics training must be made to address the deficiencies shown in this study. This process should be accompanied by continuous evaluation.

Effects of individual and organizational factors on job tenure of primary care physicians: A multilevel analysis from Brazil.

BACKGROUND: The short tenure of primary care physicians undermines the continuity of care, compromising health outcomes in low-, middle and in high-income countries. The purpose of this study was to investigate the contextual and individual factors associated with the tenure of physician in Primary Health Care (PHC) services. We consider individual-level sociodemographic variables such as education and work-related variables, as well as the characteristics of employers and services. METHODS: This study is a retrospective cohort study of 2,335 physicians in 284 Primary Health Care Units across the São Paulo, Brazil, public health care system from 2016 to 2020. A multivariate hierarchical model was selected, and an adjusted Cox regression with multilevel analysis was employed. The Strengthening the Reporting of Observational Studies in Epidemiology (STROBE) checklist was used to report the findings from the study. RESULTS: The average physician tenure was 14.54 ± 12.89 months, and the median was 10.94 months. Differences between Primary Health Care Units accounted for 10.83% of the variance observed in the outcome, while the employing organizations were responsible for only 2.30%. The physician characteristics associated with higher tenure in PHC were age at hire, i.e., being between 30 and 60 years old, [HR: 0.84, 95% CI: (0.75-0.95)] and professional experience over five years [HR: 0.76, 95% CI: (0.59-0.96)]. Specialties not related to PHC practices were associated with a short tenure [HR: 1.25, 95% CI: (1.02-1.54)]. CONCLUSION: Differences between Primary Health Care Units and in the individual characteristics, such as specializations and experience, are related to the low tenure of professionals, but such characteristics can be changed through investments in PHC infrastructure and changes in work conditions, policies, training, and human resource policies. Finding a remedy for the short tenure of physicians is essential for guaranteeing a robust PHC system that can contribute to universal, resilient, and proactive health care.

Perception of newly graduated physicians toward ethical education in medical schools: a Brazilian cross-sectional nationwide study

SUMMARY OBJECTIVE: The objective of this study was to evaluate fresh medical graduates' perceptions regarding the general aspects of ethics teaching in Brazilian medical schools. METHODS: A structured questionnaire was applied to 4,601 participants among the 16,323 physicians who registered in one of the 27 Regional Medical Councils of Brazil in 2015. Answers to four questions regarding general aspects of ethics education in medical school were analyzed. Sampling procedures involved two stratification variables: legal nature (public vs. private) of medical schools and monthly household income higher than 10 minimum wages. RESULTS: A large percentage of the participants had witnessed unethical behaviors during contact with patients (62.0%), toward coworkers (51.5%), and in relationships with patients' families (34.4%) over the course of their medical training. Even though most of the responders (72.0%) totally agreed that patient-physician relationship and humanities education were part of their medical school curriculum, important topics such as conflicts of interest and end-of-life education were not satisfactorily addressed in the participants' medical training. Statistically significant differences were found between the answers of public and private school graduates. CONCLUSION: Despite great efforts to improve medical ethics education, our findings suggest the persistence of deficits and inadequacies in the ethics training currently given in medical schools in Brazil. Further modifications in ethics training must be made to address the deficiencies shown in this study. This process should be accompanied by continuous evaluation.

Medical geneticists, genetic diseases and services in Brazil in the age of personalized medicine.

Aim: In anticipation of the implementation of personalized medicine in Brazil the authors assessed the characteristics of its medical genetics workforce together with the distribution of genetic diseases and services across the country. Materials & methods: The authors used demographic data on medical specialties, and summarized data from the public and private healthcare systems on live births, hospitalization and mortality, for the years 2019 and 2020. Results: The distribution of medical geneticists (MGs) overlapped the country-wide distribution of genetic diseases and services examined, indicating that ∼30% of the patient population has access to a MG specialist. Graduate specialism in medical genetics, registered MGs and suitable workplaces were concentrated in the south and southeast regions, leaving the north and northeast deeply underserved. Conclusion: MGs are concentrated in the wealthiest and most populated areas, while other regions have very limited services. These inequalities should be addressed for a successful transition to personalized medicine.

Personalized, or precision, medicine promotes the incorporation of information on an individual's genetic profile, and environmental and lifestyle exposures in the clinic to prevent and treat diseases. While personalized medicine is closer to being a reality in industrialized countries, it is unclear whether the conditions for its implementation exist in developing nations. The authors assessed the situation in Brazil, a country with a free-at-point-of-care universal health system, and private health insurance coverage for ∼30% of its population. The authors found that a majority of medical geneticists and genetic services were based in the south and southeast regions, which are also the wealthiest and most populated, leaving the other regions largely underserved. In addition, the authors identified a need to curb public­private healthcare asymmetries in medical genetics in order to reduce the observed inequalities.

The multiple uses of telemedicine during the pandemic: the evidence from a cross-sectional survey of medical doctors in Brazil.

BACKGROUND: The use of telemedicine, or the provision of healthcare and communication services through distance-based technologies, has increased substantially since the 2019 novel coronavirus (COVID-19) pandemic. However, it is still unclear what are the innovative features of the widespread use of such modality, its forms of employment and the context in which it is used across pluralist health systems, particularly in low- and middle-income settings. We have sought to provide empirical evidence on the above issues by analysing the responses of medical doctors in a representative cross-sectional survey in two states in Brazil: São Paulo and Maranhão. METHODS: We analysed the responses of 1,183 physicians to a survey on the impact of COVID-19 on their livelihood and working practice. Two independent samples per state were calculated based on a total of 152,511 active medical registries in São Paulo and Maranhão. Proportional stratified sampling was performed and the distributions for gender, age, state and location of address (capital or countryside) were preserved. The survey contained questions on the frequency of physicians' employment of telemedicine services; the specific activities where these were employed, and; the forms in which the pandemic had influenced the adoption or consolidation of this technology. We performed descriptive and univariate analysis based on the chi-square test or Fisher's exact test for the qualitative data, and the Mann-Whitney test in the quantitative cases. Data were shown as absolute frequency and proportion with a 95% confidence interval. RESULTS: In our sample of physicians, telemedicine was employed as a form of clinical collaboration by most doctors (76.0%, 95 CI 73.6-78.5), but only less than a third of them (30.6%, 95 CI 28.0-33.3) used it as a modality to provide healthcare services. During the pandemic, telemedicine was used predominantly in COVID-19-related areas, particularly for hospital-based in-patient services, and in private clinics and ambulatory settings. Male, younger doctors used it the most. Doctors in São Paulo employed telemedicine more frequently than in Maranhão (p < 0.001), in urban settings more than in rural areas (p < 0.001). Approximately three-quarters of doctors in large hospitals reported using telemedicine services (78.3%, 95 CI 75.9-80.6), followed by doctors working for smaller private clinics (66.4%, 95 CI 63.7-69.1), and by a smaller proportion of primary care doctors (58.4%, 95 CI 55.6-61.2). CONCLUSIONS: Our study suggests that telemedicine may have helped ensure and expand the range of communication and healthcare services in low- and middle-income settings during the COVID-19 pandemic. However, the modality appears to lend itself to be disproportionally used by doctors working in specific, priviledged sections of pluralistic health systems, and presumably by patients seeking care there. Regulation and incentives will be required to support the use of the technology across health systems in low- and middle-income countries in order to increase access to services for less disadvantaged populations.

[The entry of foreign capital into the health system in Brazil]. / A entrada do capital estrangeiro no sistema de saúde no Brasil.

The study describes the history of legislation, analyzes the trajectory and the amount of foreign capital in the Brazilian health system. The Organic Health Law restricted the participation of foreign capital; sectoral legislation, however, allowed its subsequent entry into supplementary medical care and, in 2015, a new law promoted unrestricted openness, including in hospitals and healthcare services. Our study analyzes documents, legislation, and data obtained from secondary public bases or via the Law on Access to Information. Direct investments and merger and acquisition acts in the private health sector were considered. Five phases were identified: inaugural planning, regulated expansion, legal restriction, sectorized release, and expanded opening. From 2016 to 2020, the amount of foreign resources entering the country's healthcare services was almost ten times more than the previous five-year period. Thirteen companies or funds were identified, most of them from the United States. Regulation allowing for the opening of foreign capital were preceded by business lobbies and public-private interactions that can affect the quality of public policies and the integrity of the legislative process. The invested capital seeks established and profitable companies in various segments of activity. Admission occurs in non-universal private care networks, which serve specific, geographically concentrated clientele. We conclude that foreign capital, an element of health financialization process, is expressed as a possible vector of the expansion of inequalities in the population's access to health services and as an additional obstacle to the consolidation of the Brazilian Unified National Health System.

O estudo descreve o histórico da legislação, analisa a trajetória e dimensiona o capital estrangeiro no sistema de saúde no Brasil. A Lei Orgânica da Saúde restringiu a participação do capital estrangeiro, legislações setoriais permitiram o posterior ingresso na assistência médica suplementar e, em 2015, uma nova lei promoveu a abertura irrestrita, inclusive em hospitais e serviços de saúde. O estudo analisou documentos, legislação e dados de bases secundárias públicas ou obtidos via Lei de Acesso à Informação. Foram considerados investimentos diretos e atos de fusões e aquisições no setor privado da saúde. Foram identificadas cinco fases: ordenamento inaugural, expansão regulada, restrição legal, liberação setorizada e abertura ampliada. De 2016 a 2020, ingressaram no país quase dez vezes mais recursos estrangeiros em serviços de saúde que no quinquênio anterior. Foram identificadas 13 empresas ou fundos, a maioria originária dos Estados Unidos. Normas que permitiram a abertura do capital estrangeiro foram antecedidas por lobbies empresariais e interações público-privadas que podem afetar a qualidade das políticas públicas e a integridade do processo legislativo. O capital aportado busca empresas já constituídas e mais rentáveis, em diversos segmentos de atividade. O ingresso ocorre em redes assistenciais privadas não universais, que atendem clientelas específicas, concentradas geograficamente. Conclui-se que o capital estrangeiro, elemento do processo de financeirização da saúde, se expressa como possível vetor da ampliação de desigualdades de acesso da população aos serviços de saúde e como um obstáculo adicional à consolidação do Sistema Único de Saúde.

Este estudio describe la historia de la legislación, analiza la trayectoria y dimensiona el capital extranjero en el sistema de salud en Brasil. La Ley Orgánica de Salud restringió la participación de capital extranjero, las legislaciones sectoriales permitieron el posterior ingreso a la asistencia médica complementaria y, en el 2015, una nueva ley promovió la apertura sin restricciones, incluso en hospitales y servicios de salud. El estudio analizó documentos, legislación y datos de bases públicas secundarias u obtenidos por medio de la Ley de Acceso a la Información. Se consideraron inversiones directas y actos de fusiones y adquisiciones en el sector privado de la salud. Se identificaron cinco etapas: ordenamiento inaugural, expansión regulada, restricción legal, liberación sectorizada y apertura ampliada. Del 2016 al 2020 ingresaron al país casi diez veces más recursos extranjeros en servicios de salud que en el quinquenio anterior. Se identificaron 13 empresas o fondos, la mayoría con origen en los EE.UU. Las reglas que permitieron la apertura al capital extranjero fueron precedidas por cabildeos empresariales e interacciones público-privadas que pueden afectar la calidad de las políticas públicas y la integridad del proceso legislativo. El capital aportado busca empresas ya consolidadas y más rentables, en diversos segmentos de actividad. El ingreso se da en redes asistenciales privadas no universales, que atienden a una clientela específica y geográficamente concentrada. Se concluye que el capital extranjero, elemento del proceso de financiarización de la salud, se expresa como un posible vector de la ampliación de desigualdades en el acceso de la población a los servicios de salud y como un obstáculo adicional para la consolidación del Sistema Único de Salud.

The Impact of the COVID-19 Pandemic on Physicians' Working Hours and Earnings in São Paulo and Maranhão States, Brazil.

Evidence exists on the health impacts of the current COVID-19 pandemic on health workers, but less is known about its impact on their work dynamics and livelihoods. This matters, as health workers-and physicians in particular-are a scarce and expensive resource in low- and middle-income countries (LMICs). Our cross-sectional survey set out to explore changes in working hours and earnings during the second year of the pandemic in a representative sample of 1183 physicians in Brazil's São Paulo (SP) and Maranhão (MA) states. Descriptive analysis and inferential statistics were employed to explore differences in working hours and earnings among public and private sector physicians across the two locations. The workloads and earnings of doctors working exclusively in the public sector increased the most in the second year of the epidemic, particularly in MA. Conversely, the largest proportion of private-only doctors in our sample saw a decrease in their working hours (48.4%, 95% CI 41.8-55.0), whereas the largest proportion of public-only doctors in MA saw an increase in their working hours (44.4%, 95% CI 38.0-50.8). Although earnings remained broadly stable in the public sector, a third of public sector-only physicians in MA saw an increase in their earnings (95% CI 24.4-36.2). More than half of private-only doctors across both states saw a decrease in their earnings (52.2%, 95% CI 45.6-58.8). The largest proportion of dual practitioners (the majority in Brazil and in our sample) maintained their pre-pandemic levels of income (38.8%, 95% CI 35.3-42.3). As public-sector doctors have been key in the fight against the pandemic, it is critical to invest in these cadres in order to develop epidemic preparedness in LMICs, and to find new ways to harness for-profit actors to deliver social benefits.

Judicialização dos planos e seguros de saúde privados / Judicialization of private health plans and insurance

Esta edição especial da Revista de Direito Sanitário apresenta os resultados inéditos de pesquisas realizadas pelo Grupo de Estudos sobre Planos de Saúde, do Departamento de Medicina Preventiva da Faculdade de Medicina e do Centro de Estudos e Pesquisas de Direito Sanitário (Cepedisa) da Faculdade de Saúde Pública, ambos da Universidade de São Paulo.

This special issue of the Revista de Direito sanitário presents the unpublished results of the research carried out by the Study Group on Private Health Plans, of the Department of Preventive Medicine of the Faculty of Medicine and the Center for Studies and Research in Health Law, of the Faculty of Public Health, of the Universidade de São Paulo.

Physicians' income in Brazil: a study on information sources.

OBJECTIVE: Data on physicians' income are relevant for well-informed health policies, both due to their strategic role and the volume of resources that their activities represent to health systems. In Brazil, multiple sources of data measure the income of these professionals, each one with singularities that generate a complex and heterogeneous picture. This study explores the methodological aspects of different data sources, pointing to potentials and limitations to measuring the income of physicians. METHODS: We use the sources' documentation and data on the average monthly income in 2019, by gender and macro region, from four distinct surveys: Continuous Pnad (National Household Sample Survey), RAIS (Annual Listing of Social Information), Medical Demographics, and IRPF (Personal Income Tax). RESULTS: The results confirm the heterogeneity of definitions, variables, and methodologies. The data set can evidence phenomena such as the income difference between men and women. Regional inequalities are evident; however, the data interpretation is less assertive. CONCLUSIONS: Although eventual gaps and discrepancies among sources can limit some strong conclusions, the analysis of different methodologies employed can suggest relevant hypotheses for in-depth studies.

Physicians' income in Brazil: a study on information sources

SUMMARY OBJECTIVE: Data on physicians' income are relevant for well-informed health policies, both due to their strategic role and the volume of resources that their activities represent to health systems. In Brazil, multiple sources of data measure the income of these professionals, each one with singularities that generate a complex and heterogeneous picture. This study explores the methodological aspects of different data sources, pointing to potentials and limitations to measuring the income of physicians. METHODS: We use the sources' documentation and data on the average monthly income in 2019, by gender and macro region, from four distinct surveys: Continuous Pnad (National Household Sample Survey), RAIS (Annual Listing of Social Information), Medical Demographics, and IRPF (Personal Income Tax). RESULTS: The results confirm the heterogeneity of definitions, variables, and methodologies. The data set can evidence phenomena such as the income difference between men and women. Regional inequalities are evident; however, the data interpretation is less assertive. CONCLUSIONS: Although eventual gaps and discrepancies among sources can limit some strong conclusions, the analysis of different methodologies employed can suggest relevant hypotheses for in-depth studies.

Evolution of Gender Disparities Among Brazilian Surgical, Anesthesia, and Obstetric Providers.

INTRODUCTION: Since 2010, most graduating physicians in Brazil have been female, nevertheless gender disparities among surgical specialties still exist. This study aims to explore whether the increase in female physicians has translated to increased female representation among surgical specialties in Brazil. METHODS: Data on gender, years of practice, and specialty was extracted from Demografia Médica do Brasil, from 2015 to 2020. The percentage of women across 18 surgical, anesthesia, and obstetric (SAO) specialties and the relative increases in female representation during the study period were calculated. RESULTS: Of the 18 SAO specialties studied, 16 (88%) were predominantly male (>50%). Only obstetrics/gynecology and breast surgery showed a female predominance, with 58% and 52%, respectively. Urology, neurosurgery, and orthopedic surgery and traumatology were the three specialties with the largest presence of men - and the lowest absolute growth in the female workforce from 2015 to 2020. CONCLUSIONS: In Brazil, where significant gender disparities persist, women are still underrepresented in surgical specialties. Female presence is predominant in surgical specialties dedicated to the care of female patients, while it remains poor in those with male patient dominance. Over the last 5 y, the proportion of women working in SAO specialties has grown, but not as much as in nonsurgical specialties. Future studies should focus on investigating the causes of gender disparities in Brazil to understand and tackle the barriers to pursuing surgical specialties.

Physician turnover in primary health care services in the East Zone of São Paulo City, Brazil: incidence and associated factors.

BACKGROUND: The shortage and high turnover of physicians is a recurrent problem in health care systems; this is especially harmful to the expansion and full operation of primary health care (PHC). The aim of this paper is to analyze incidence and associated factors with physician turnover in primary health care services in the East Zone of São Paulo City. METHODS: This is a retrospective cohort study of 1378 physicians over a 15 years' time period based on physicians' administrative records from two distinct secondary databases. Physicians' individual characteristics were analyzed including graduation and specialization. Survival analysis techniques such Kaplan-Meier and Cox Regression were used to analyze the termination of contract. RESULTS: One thousand three hundred seventy-eight physicians were included in the study of which 130 [9.4%(CI95 8.0-11.1%)] remained in the PHC services. The mean and median time until the occurrence of the physician leaving the service was 2.14 years (CI95% 1.98-2.29 years) and 1.17 years [(CI95% 1.05-1.28 years)]. The probability of contract interruption was 45% in the first year and 68% in the second year. Independent factors associated with TEC were identified: workload of 40 h/week HR = 1.71 [(CI95% 1.4-2.09), p < 0.001]; initial salary ≤1052 BGI HR = 1.87 [(CI95 1.64-2.15), p < 0.001]; time since graduation ≤2 years HR =1.36 [(CI95 1.18-1.56), p < 0.001]; and the conclusion of residency in up to 3 years after leaving the service HR = 1.69 [(CI95 1.40-2.04), p < 0.001]. CONCLUSIONS: The time of employment of the physician in PHC was relatively short, with a high probability of TEC in the first year. Modifiable factors such as working hours, starting salary, time since graduation from medical school and need to enter in a residency program were associated with TEC. In pointing out that modifiable factors are responsible for long term employment or the end of contract of physicians in PHC services of the Unified Health System in the periphery of a metropolitan area, the study provides support for the planning, implementation and management of policies and strategies aimed at attracting and retaining physicians in suburban, priority or underserved regions.

Demographic and professional risk factors of SARS-CoV-2 infections among physicians in low- and middle-income settings: Findings from a representative survey in two Brazilian states.

Health workers (HWs) are a key resource for health systems worldwide, and have been affected heavily by the COVID-19 pandemic. Evidence is consolidating on incidence and drivers of infections, predominantly in high-income settings. It is however unclear what the risk factors may be for specific health professions, particularly in low- and middle-income countries (LMICs). We conducted a cross-sectional survey in a representative sample of 1,183 medical doctors registered with Brazil's Federal Council of Medicine in one developed (São Paulo) and one disadvantaged state (Maranhão). Between February-June 2021, we administered a telephone questionnaire to collect data on physicians' demographics, deployment to services, vaccination status, and self-reported COVID-19 infections. We performed descriptive, univariate, and multilevel clustered analysis to explore the association between physicians' infection rates, and their sociodemographic and employment characteristics. A generalized linear mixed model with a binomial distribution was used to estimate the adjusted odds ratio. We found that 35.8% of physicians in our sample declared having been infected with SARS-CoV-2 virus during the first year of the pandemic. The infection rate in Maranhão (49.2%) [95% CI 45.0-53.4] was almost twice that in São Paulo (24.1%) [95% CI 20.8-27.5]. Being a physician in Maranhão [95% CI 2.08-3.57], younger than 50 years [95% CI 1.41-2.89] and having worked in a COVID-19 ward [95% CI 1.28-2.27], were positively associated with the probability of infection. Conversely, working with diagnostic services [95% CI 0.53-0.96], in administrative functions [95% CI 0.42-0.80], or in teaching and research [95% CI 0.48-0.91] were negatively associated. Based on our data from Brazil, COVID-19 infections in LMICs may be more likely in health systems with lower physician-to-patient ratios, and younger doctors working in COVID-19 wards may be infected more frequently. Such findings may be used to identify policies to mitigate COVID-19 effects on HWs in LMICs.

A entrada do capital estrangeiro no sistema de saúde no Brasil / The entry of foreign capital into the health system in Brazil / La entrada de capital extranjero en el sistema de salud en Brasil

O estudo descreve o histórico da legislação, analisa a trajetória e dimensiona o capital estrangeiro no sistema de saúde no Brasil. A Lei Orgânica da Saúde restringiu a participação do capital estrangeiro, legislações setoriais permitiram o posterior ingresso na assistência médica suplementar e, em 2015, uma nova lei promoveu a abertura irrestrita, inclusive em hospitais e serviços de saúde. O estudo analisou documentos, legislação e dados de bases secundárias públicas ou obtidos via Lei de Acesso à Informação. Foram considerados investimentos diretos e atos de fusões e aquisições no setor privado da saúde. Foram identificadas cinco fases: ordenamento inaugural, expansão regulada, restrição legal, liberação setorizada e abertura ampliada. De 2016 a 2020, ingressaram no país quase dez vezes mais recursos estrangeiros em serviços de saúde que no quinquênio anterior. Foram identificadas 13 empresas ou fundos, a maioria originária dos Estados Unidos. Normas que permitiram a abertura do capital estrangeiro foram antecedidas por lobbies empresariais e interações público-privadas que podem afetar a qualidade das políticas públicas e a integridade do processo legislativo. O capital aportado busca empresas já constituídas e mais rentáveis, em diversos segmentos de atividade. O ingresso ocorre em redes assistenciais privadas não universais, que atendem clientelas específicas, concentradas geograficamente. Conclui-se que o capital estrangeiro, elemento do processo de financeirização da saúde, se expressa como possível vetor da ampliação de desigualdades de acesso da população aos serviços de saúde e como um obstáculo adicional à consolidação do Sistema Único de Saúde.

The study describes the history of legislation, analyzes the trajectory and the amount of foreign capital in the Brazilian health system. The Organic Health Law restricted the participation of foreign capital; sectoral legislation, however, allowed its subsequent entry into supplementary medical care and, in 2015, a new law promoted unrestricted openness, including in hospitals and healthcare services. Our study analyzes documents, legislation, and data obtained from secondary public bases or via the Law on Access to Information. Direct investments and merger and acquisition acts in the private health sector were considered. Five phases were identified: inaugural planning, regulated expansion, legal restriction, sectorized release, and expanded opening. From 2016 to 2020, the amount of foreign resources entering the country's healthcare services was almost ten times more than the previous five-year period. Thirteen companies or funds were identified, most of them from the United States. Regulation allowing for the opening of foreign capital were preceded by business lobbies and public-private interactions that can affect the quality of public policies and the integrity of the legislative process. The invested capital seeks established and profitable companies in various segments of activity. Admission occurs in non-universal private care networks, which serve specific, geographically concentrated clientele. We conclude that foreign capital, an element of health financialization process, is expressed as a possible vector of the expansion of inequalities in the population's access to health services and as an additional obstacle to the consolidation of the Brazilian Unified National Health System.

Este estudio describe la historia de la legislación, analiza la trayectoria y dimensiona el capital extranjero en el sistema de salud en Brasil. La Ley Orgánica de Salud restringió la participación de capital extranjero, las legislaciones sectoriales permitieron el posterior ingreso a la asistencia médica complementaria y, en el 2015, una nueva ley promovió la apertura sin restricciones, incluso en hospitales y servicios de salud. El estudio analizó documentos, legislación y datos de bases públicas secundarias u obtenidos por medio de la Ley de Acceso a la Información. Se consideraron inversiones directas y actos de fusiones y adquisiciones en el sector privado de la salud. Se identificaron cinco etapas: ordenamiento inaugural, expansión regulada, restricción legal, liberación sectorizada y apertura ampliada. Del 2016 al 2020 ingresaron al país casi diez veces más recursos extranjeros en servicios de salud que en el quinquenio anterior. Se identificaron 13 empresas o fondos, la mayoría con origen en los EE.UU. Las reglas que permitieron la apertura al capital extranjero fueron precedidas por cabildeos empresariales e interacciones público-privadas que pueden afectar la calidad de las políticas públicas y la integridad del proceso legislativo. El capital aportado busca empresas ya consolidadas y más rentables, en diversos segmentos de actividad. El ingreso se da en redes asistenciales privadas no universales, que atienden a una clientela específica y geográficamente concentrada. Se concluye que el capital extranjero, elemento del proceso de financiarización de la salud, se expresa como un posible vector de la ampliación de desigualdades en el acceso de la población a los servicios de salud y como un obstáculo adicional para la consolidación del Sistema Único de Salud.