Inverse Leidenfrost Effect: Levitating Drops on Liquid Nitrogen.

We explore the interaction between a liquid drop (initially at room temperature) and a bath of liquid nitrogen. In this scenario, heat transfer occurs through film-boiling: a nitrogen vapor layer develops that may cause the drop to levitate at the bath surface. We report the phenomenology of this inverse Leidenfrost effect, investigating the effect of the drop size and density by using an aqueous solution of a tungsten salt to vary the drop density. We find that (depending on its size and density) a drop either levitates or instantaneously sinks into the bulk nitrogen. We begin by measuring the duration of the levitation as a function of the radius R and density ρd of the liquid drop. We find that the levitation time increases roughly linearly with drop radius but depends weakly on the drop density. However, for sufficiently large drops, R ≥ Rc(ρd), the drop sinks instantaneously; levitation does not occur. This sinking of a (relatively) hot droplet induces film-boiling, releasing a stream of vapor bubbles for a well-defined length of time. We study the duration of this immersed-drop bubbling finding similar scalings (but with different prefactors) to the levitating drop case. With these observations, we study the physical factors limiting the levitation and immersed-film-boiling times, proposing a simple model that explains the scalings observed for the duration of these phenomena, as well as the boundary of (R,ρd) parameter space that separates them.

Field methodology for lateral cranial radiography of nonhuman primates.

The historical lack of field-based radiographic studies of nonhuman primates within the field of anthropology is likely due to the perceived difficulty of transporting and operating X-ray equipment. Here we present a method for taking lateral cranial radiographs of nonhuman primates in the field that is simple to employ, and that produces exposed films suitable for collection of measurement data useful for growth and development studies, as well as for investigating bone and soft-tissue pathology. Several different X-ray units, film types, and portable power sources were used, all producing suitable images of similar quality, indicating that this methodology is likely not overly sensitive to these important parameters.

Internal dosimetry for inhalation of hafnium tritide aerosols.

Metal tritides with low dissolution rates may have residence times in the lungs which are considerably longer than the biological half-time normally associated with tritium in body water, resulting in long-term irradiation of the lungs by low energy beta particles and bremsstrahlung X rays. Samples of hafnium tritide were placed in a lung simulant fluid to determine approximate lung dissolution rates. Hafnium hydride samples were analysed for particle size distribution with a scanning electron microscope. Lung simulant data indicated a biological dissolution half-time for hafnium tritide on the order of 10(5) d. Hafnium hydride particle sizes ranged between 2 and 10 microns, corresponding to activity median aerodynamic diameters of 5 to 25 microns. Review of in vitro dissolution data, development of a biokinetic model, and determination of secondary limits for 1 micron AMAD particles are presented and discussed.

Bayesian prior probability distributions for internal dosimetry.

The problem of choosing a prior distribution for the Bayesian interpretation of measurements (specifically internal dosimetry measurements) is considered using a theoretical analysis and by examining historical tritium and plutonium urine bioassay data from Los Alamos. Two models for the prior probability distribution are proposed: (1) the log-normal distribution, when there is some additional information to determine the scale of the true result, and (2) the 'alpha' distribution (a simplified variant of the gamma distribution) when there is not. These models have been incorporated into version 3 of the Bayesian internal dosimetry code in use at Los Alamos (downloadable from our web site). Plutonium internal dosimetry at Los Alamos is now being done using prior probability distribution parameters determined self-consistently from population averages of Los Alamos data.

Detection of antibodies to selected human pathogens among wild and pet macaques (Macaca tonkeana) in Sulawesi, Indonesia.

Human-to-primate disease transmission can potentially cause significant morbidity and mortality among wild primate populations and thus constitutes an important conservation issue. Our cross-sectional study examines serological evidence of exposure to human pathogens among wild and pet macaques in Sulawesi. Serum samples taken from 11 pet and 15 wild macaques (Macaca tonkeana) were analyzed for antibodies to a panel of viruses commonly encountered in human populations. Antibodies to measles, influenza A, and parainfluenza 1 were detected in sera of both pet and wild macaques. Antibodies to parainfluenza 2 and 3 were found in the sera of wild macaques only. Possible routes of exposure, as well as implications for conservation are discussed.

Nonhuman primate hybridization and the taxonomic status of Neanderthals.

The present study examines the taxonomic status of Middle Paleolithic Neanderthals by comparing their observed minimum genetic divergence from Upper Paleolithic modern humans in Europe with that observed between macaque species from Sulawesi that are known to hybridize and fully intergrade in the wild. The genetic divergence, and differentiation between Neanderthals and Upper Paleolithic modern humans, as indicated by pairwise minimum genetic distances and F(ST) values calculated from the estimated minimum genetic relationship (R) matrix derived from craniometric data, are significantly greater than those observed both between hybridizing and noninterbreeding Sulawesi macaque species, suggesting that mate recognition and the possibility of gene flow between Neanderthals and Upper Paleolithic modern humans might have been greatly reduced. These results support a species-level taxonomic distinction for the Neanderthals as suggested by proponents of the replacement model. Furthermore, assumptions regarding the monophyletic origin of modern humans from outside Europe are likely valid.

Analyzing bioassay data using Bayesian methods--a primer.

The classical statistics approach used in health physics for the interpretation of measurements is deficient in that it does not take into account "needle in a haystack" effects, that is, correct identification of events that are rare in a population. This is often the case in health physics measurements, and the false positive fraction (the fraction of results measuring positive that are actually zero) is often very large using the prescriptions of classical statistics. Bayesian statistics provides a methodology to minimize the number of incorrect decisions (wrong calls): false positives and false negatives. We present the basic method and a heuristic discussion. Examples are given using numerically generated and real bioassay data for tritium. Various analytical models are used to fit the prior probability distribution in order to test the sensitivity to choice of model. Parametric studies show that for typical situations involving rare events the normalized Bayesian decision level k(alpha) = Lc/sigma0, where sigma0 is the measurement uncertainty for zero true amount, is in the range of 3 to 5 depending on the true positive rate. Four times sigma0 rather than approximately two times sigma0, as in classical statistics, would seem a better choice for the decision level in these situations.

Radiobiology of ultrasoft X rays. V. Modification of cell inactivation by dimethyl sulfoxide.

The effects of the radioprotector dimethyl sulfoxide (DMSO) were investigated for carbon-K (0.28 keV) and aluminum-K (1.47 keV) X rays compared with 60Co gamma rays for inactivation of mouse C3H 10T1/2 cells. The protection factor for 2 M DMSO was found to be 2.8 for both of the ultrasoft X-ray energies, which is not significantly different from the protection factor of 2.6 found for gamma rays. The results indicate that the proportion of scavengeable lethal damage from gamma and X rays does not depend on the proportion of the total energy that is deposited by low-energy electrons of relatively high ionization density.

Measurement of the G-value for 1.5 keV X-rays.

Although there are several theoretical predictions of the dependence of the G-value on X-ray energy, measurements have not been made below approximately equal to 7 keV. Using a ferrous sulfate solution modified by the addition of benzoic acid, we have measured the relative G-values for Alk characteristic X-rays (1.5 keV), 238Pu alpha-particles (3.7 MeV), 60Co (1.17 MeV) and 137Cs (0.66 MeV) gamma-rays. This modified ferrous sulfate solution gave a 4-fold increase in sensitivity relative to the conventional solution, making measurements with the Alk X-rays feasible. The relative ferrous-to-ferric conversions as a function of dose were similar for the two gamma-ray energies, yielding G-values of 1.62 and 1.59 mumol J-1 for the 60Co and 137Cs radiations, respectively. The alpha-particle G-value was 0.52 mumol J-1, or 31 per cent of that for the 60Co gamma-rays, in good agreement with previous measurements. The Alk X-rays had a G-value of 0.92 mumol J-1 or 57 per cent of that of the 60Co radiation. This G-value for the 1.5 keV X-rays is within 20 per cent of the values predicted by current theories, and theoretical values are within the error range of our measurement. The consistency between the experimental value reported here and theoretical G-values for ultrasoft X-rays should be valuable for models of radiation action on biological systems.

Radiobiology of ultrasoft X rays. III. Normal human fibroblasts and the significance of terminal track structure in cell inactivation.

Ultrasoft characteristic X rays from carbon (0.28 keV) are severely attenuated as they pass through biological material, causing a nonuniform distribution of dose to cell nuclei. Complications of studying ultrasoft X rays can be minimized in this context by using cells with very thin cytoplasm and nuclei (e.g., less than the attenuation length of the X rays), and which exhibit a more nearly exponential dose response to cell killing, such as normal human fibroblasts compared with V79 cells. Using this cell system, we report the relative biological effectiveness (RBE) of A1-K and C-K X rays to be near unity. Previous studies of cell inactivation by characteristic carbon X rays gave RBEs of 3 to 4, supporting the idea that localized energy depositions from secondary electrons and primary track ends represent the principal mode of biological action for other low-LET radiations. In part, the reported high RBEs result from the use of mean dose to describe energy deposited within the cell nuclei by these poorly penetrating radiations. Implicit in the use of mean dose is that cellular damage varies linearly with dose within a critical target(s), an assumption that is of questionable validity for cells that exhibit pronounced curvilinear dose responses. The simplest interpretation of the present findings is that most energy depositions caused by track-end effects are not necessarily more damaging than the sparsely ionizing component.

Radiobiology of ultrasoft X rays. IV. Flat and round-shaped hamster cells (CHO-10B, HS-23).

The results reported earlier in this series indicated that the relative biological effectiveness (RBE) of ultrasoft X rays decreases with decreasing cell thickness, approaching unity for the thinnest cells used, plateau-phase human skin fibroblasts (HSF). The possible dependence of RBE on the configuration of the cell nucleus is investigated further in this paper using two CHO cell lines that attach well and have similar intrinsic radiosensitivities to 60Co gamma rays. One of the lines forms monolayers similar to V79 cells, while the other remains more spherical during growth. We find an increasing RBE with decreasing X-ray energy for both of these cell lines, consistent with our results using V79 cells. Also consistent with our results obtained with 10T1/2 and HSF cells, we find an increasing RBE with increasing cell thickness. The possible dependence of RBE on radiosensitivity and the use of the concept of mean dose for ultrasoft X rays is discussed.

Radiobiology of ultrasoft X rays. II. Cultured C3H mouse cells (10T1/2).

In the first paper of this series (Radiat. Res. 110, 396-412 (1987], using V79 cells, we reported that the relative biological effectiveness (RBE) of ultrasoft X rays was found to increase with decreasing energy, and the oxygen enhancement ratio (OER) was found to decrease with decreasing energy. In this report, we present RBE and OER results for 10T1/2 cells that are known to grow uniformly flat and are considerably thinner than V79 cells. Thus the variation in dose across the cell nucleus is considerably reduced. The OER results agree well with our earlier V79 results. However, the RBE values for 10T1/2 cells compared to V79 cells are systematically less for all soft X rays and especially for 0.28 keV carbon-K (1.3 compared to 3.4 for V79 cells). Some plausible explanations are presented to reconcile the apparent discrepancy between V79 and 10T1/2 results.

Radiobiology of ultrasoft X rays. I. Cultured hamster cells (V79).

Ultrasoft X rays (approximately less than keV) provide a useful probe for the study of the physical parameters associated with the induction of biological lesions because the spatial scale of their energy depositions is of nanometer dimensions, comparable to that of critical structures within the cell. We report on cell-killing experiments using cultured hamster cells (V79) exposed to carbon K (0.28 keV), aluminum K (1.5 keV), copper K (8.0 keV), and 250 kVp X rays, under oxic and hypoxic conditions, and as a function of cell-cycle phase. Our principal results are: RBE increases with decreasing X-ray energy; OER decreases with decreasing X-ray energy; and cell-cycle response is similar for all X-ray energies. Our RBE results confirm earlier observations using ultrasoft X rays on mammalian cells. The shapes of fitted curves through the data for each energy are statistically indistinguishable from one another, implying that the enhanced effectiveness is purely dose modifying. The results reported herein generally support the view that single-track effects of radiation are predominantly due to very local energy depositions on the nanometer scale, which are principally responsible for observed radiobiological effects.

The effects of dietary selenium on the biotransformation of 7,21-dimethylbenz[a]anthracene.

The influence of dietary selenium on the mutagenic activation of 7,12-dimethylbenz[a]anthracene (DMBA) by rat liver S9 was studied using the Ames test. Rats received supplemental selenium, as sodium selenite, in the drinking water or in the diet. All rats additionally received 0, 20, 50, 100, or 500 mg Aroclor 1254 per kg body weight. Revertant counts decreased 72 and 31% at the 20- and 100-mg/kg induction levels, respectively, with S9 preparations from rats given selenium supplementation, compared to controls. No significant effects of selenium on S9 preparations was observed in rats treated with 500 mg/kg Aroclor. Preparations of S9 from rats receiving 2.5 ppm Se in their diet produced 46, 84 and 70% less revertants than controls at the 20-, 50- and 100-mg/kg induction levels. Increasing the selenium concentration in the diet to 5 ppm reduced the revertant counts by 71, 68 and 65%, at the 20-, 50- and 100-mg/kg induction level of Aroclor, respectively. Dietary selenium supplementation was shown to decrease the mutagenic activation of DMBA by liver microsomes. These studies indicate that in vivo selenium supplementation may reduce susceptibility to the action of various carcinogens.

Antimutagenic effect of selenium on acridine orange and 7,12-dimethylbenz[alpha]anthracene in the Ames Salmonella/microsomal system.

The antimutagenic effects of selenium as sodium selenite were investigated using the Ames Salmonella/microsome mutagenicity test. The compounds examined were acridine orange and 7,12-dimethylbenz[alpha]anthracene. Selenium (22 ppm) reduced the number of histidine revertants caused by 20 microgram acridine orange and 20 microgram 7,12-dimethylbenz[alpha]anthracene by 52 and 74%, respectively. Increasing the quantity of selenium added to the plates further suppressed the mutagenicity of the test compounds. The antimutagenic effects of selenium cannot be explained by lethality of Salmonella typhimurium.

Dose outside the treatment volume for irradiation with negative pions.

Irradiation of humans with negative pions requires a knowledge of the absorbed dose and radiation quality outside the primary pion beam. In conjunction with early clinical trials at LAMPF, experimental data have been obtained with microdosimetric techniques and multiwire proportional counters. Theoretical calculations have been made for the neutron contribution to the dose and are consistent with these data. Measurements were made with in 40 cm x 51 cm x 76 cm water phantom for a negative pion beam of initial momentum of 170 MeV/c, deltap = +/- 3MeV/c. The absorbed dose outside the treatment volume is the result of: (1) neutrons and photons from the pion interactions,(2) treatment room background and (3) peripheral muons, electrons and pions in the primary beam. The first two components are nearly isotropic and are congruent to 0.02% of the peak dose at a distance of 24 cm from the treatment volume; the third component is anisotropic and varies from 0.01 to 0.1% of the peak dose. Collimation of the bean increases the dose outside the treatment volume typically by 50%.