Toolbox of individual-level interventions against online misinformation.

The spread of misinformation through media and social networks threatens many aspects of society, including public health and the state of democracies. One approach to mitigating the effect of misinformation focuses on individual-level interventions, equipping policymakers and the public with essential tools to curb the spread and influence of falsehoods. Here we introduce a toolbox of individual-level interventions for reducing harm from online misinformation. Comprising an up-to-date account of interventions featured in 81 scientific papers from across the globe, the toolbox provides both a conceptual overview of nine main types of interventions, including their target, scope and examples, and a summary of the empirical evidence supporting the interventions, including the methods and experimental paradigms used to test them. The nine types of interventions covered are accuracy prompts, debunking and rebuttals, friction, inoculation, lateral reading and verification strategies, media-literacy tips, social norms, source-credibility labels, and warning and fact-checking labels.

Characterization of Germanium Nanoparticles from Arylgermanium Trihydrides.

Germanium is a promising basis for nanomaterials due to its low toxicity and valuable optical and electronic properties. However, germanium nanomaterials have seen little research compared to other group 14 elements due to unpredictable chemical behavior and high costs. Here, we report the dehydrocoupling of o-tolylgermanium trihydride to amorphous nanoparticles. The reaction is facilitated through reflux at 162 °C and can be accelerated with an amine base catalyst. Through cleavage of both H2 and toluene, new Ge-Ge bonds form. This results in nanoparticles consisting of crosslinked germanium with o-tolyl termination. The particles are 2-6 nm in size and have masses above approximately 3500 Da. The organic substituents are promising for further functionalization. Combined with strong absorption up to 600 nm and moderate solubility and air stability, there are numerous possibilities for future applications.

The empathetic refutational interview to tackle vaccine misconceptions: Four randomized experiments.

OBJECTIVE: We introduce and report early stage testing of a novel, multicomponent intervention that can be used by healthcare professionals (HCPs) to address false or misleading antivaccination arguments while maintaining empathy for and understanding of people's motivations to believe misinformation: the "Empathetic Refutational Interview" (ERI). METHOD: We conducted four experiments in 2022 with participants who were predominantly negative or on the fence about vaccination (total n = 2,545) to test four steps for tailoring an HCP's response to a vaccine-hesitant individual: (a) elicit their concerns, (b) affirm their values and beliefs to the extent possible, (c) refute the misinformed beliefs in their reasoning in a way that is tailored to their psychological motivations, and (d) provide factual information about vaccines. Each of the steps was tested against active control conditions, with participants randomized to conditions. RESULTS: Overall, compared to controls, we found that observing steps of the ERI produced small effects on increasing vaccine acceptance and lowering support for antivaccination arguments. Critically, an HCP who affirmed participants' concerns generated significantly more support for their refutations and subsequent information, with large effects compared to controls. In addition, participants found tailored refutations (compared to control responses) more compelling, and displayed more trust and openness toward the HCP giving them. CONCLUSIONS: The ERI can potentially be leveraged and tested further as a tailored communication tool for HCPs to refute antivaccination misconceptions while maintaining trust and rapport with patients. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2024 APA, all rights reserved).

Testing Psychological Inoculation to Reduce Reactance to Vaccine-Related Communication.

Research has found that vaccine-promoting messages can elicit state reactance (i.e., negative emotions in response to a perceived threat to behavioral freedom), especially among individuals with high trait reactance (i.e., proneness to experiencing reactance). This can result in a lower willingness to accept vaccines. We investigated whether inoculation against reactance - that is, forewarning individuals about potentially experiencing reactance - can reduce the effects of trait reactance on vaccination willingness. Participants (N = 710) recruited through Facebook were randomly allocated to be either inoculated or not. They were then shown a message promoting a fictitious vaccine, which included either a low, medium, or high threat to freedom. Contrary to research on other health topics, inoculation was ineffective at reducing state reactance toward the vaccination message. Inoculation also did not mitigate the effects of trait reactance on vaccination willingness, and was even counterproductive in some cases. High-reactant individuals were less willing to get vaccinated than low-reactant ones, especially at high freedom threat. Conversely, high freedom threat resulted in increased vaccination willingness among low-reactant individuals. Further research is needed to understand why inoculation against reactance produces different results with vaccination, and to develop communication strategies that mitigate reactance to vaccination campaigns without compromising the positive effects of vaccine recommendations for low-reactant individuals.

Gas-Phase Infrared Action Spectroscopy of CH2Cl+ and CH3ClH+: Likely Protagonists in Chlorine Astrochemistry.

Two fundamental halocarbon ions, CH2Cl+ and CH3ClH+, were studied in the gas phase using the FELion 22-pole ion trap apparatus and the Free Electron Laser for Infrared eXperiments (FELIX) at Radboud University, Nijmegen (the Netherlands). The vibrational bands of a total of four isotopologs, CH235,37Cl+ and CH335,37ClH+, were observed in selected wavenumber regions between 500 and 2900 cm-1 and then spectroscopically assigned based on the results of anharmonic force field calculations performed at the CCSD(T) level of theory. As the infrared photodissociation spectroscopy scheme employed probes singly Ne-tagged weakly bound complexes, complementary quantum-chemical calculations of selected species were also performed. The impact of tagging on the vibrational spectra of CH2Cl+ and CH3ClH+ is found to be virtually negligible for most bands; for CH3ClH+-Ne, the observations suggest a proton-bound structural arrangement. The experimental band positions as well as the best estimate rotational molecular parameters given in this work provide a solid basis for future spectroscopic studies at high spectral resolutions.

Hyperfine-resolved rotational spectroscopy of HCNH.

The rotational spectrum of the molecular ion HCNH+ is revisited using double-resonance spectroscopy in an ion trap apparatus, with six transitions measured between 74 and 445 GHz. Due to the cryogenic temperature of the trap, the hyperfine splittings caused by the 14N quadrupolar nucleus were resolved for transitions up to J = 4 ← 3, allowing for a refinement of the spectroscopic parameters previously reported, especially the quadrupole coupling constant eQq.

Cooperative Self-Assembly Process Involving Giant Toroidal Polyoxometalate as a Membrane Building Block in Nanoscale Vesicles.

The self-assembly of organic amphiphilic species into various aggregates such as spherical or elongated micelles and cylinders up to the formation of lyotropic hexagonal or lamellar phases results from cooperative processes orchestrated by the hydrophobic effect, while those involving ionic inorganic polynuclear entities and nonionic organic components are still intriguing. Herein, we report on the supramolecular behavior of giant toroidal molybdenum blue-type polyoxometalate, namely, the {Mo154} species in the presence of n-octyl-ß-glucoside (C8G1), widely used as a surfactant in biochemistry. Structural investigations were carried out using a set of complementary multiscale methods including single-crystal X-ray diffraction analysis supported by molecular modeling, small-angle X-ray scattering and cryo-TEM observations. In addition, liquid NMR, viscosimetry, surface tension measurement, and isothermal titration calorimetry provided further information to decipher the complex aggregation pathway. Elucidation of the assembly process reveals a rich scenario where the presence of the large {Mo154} anion disrupts the self-assembly of the C8G1, well-known to produce micelles, and induces striking successive phase transitions from fluid-to-gel and from gel-to-fluid. Herein, intimate organic-inorganic primary interactions arising from the superchaotropic nature of the {Mo154} lead to versatile nanoscopic hybrid C8G1-{Mo154} aggregates including crystalline discrete assemblies, smectic lamellar liquid crystals, and large uni- or multilamellar vesicles where the large torus {Mo154} acts a trans-membrane component.

Efficacy of reading strategies on text-level reading comprehension in people with post-stroke chronic aphasia: A repeated measures study.

BACKGROUND: People with aphasia (PWA) frequently experience difficulties in understanding longer written content such as paragraphs or books. Reading strategies are a promising approach to treat text-level reading comprehension deficits in PWA. Nevertheless, empirical evidence for their efficacy remains rare. AIMS: The primary objective of this study was to analyse the efficacy of a strategy-based intervention on text-level reading comprehension in PWA. Secondary objectives were to compare the effects of two strategy-based intervention components and to explore potential moderator effects. METHODS & PROCEDURES: A protocol was published prior to data acquisition. In a repeated measures trial, 26 German participants with chronic, post-stroke aphasia participated in a waiting period without aphasia treatment (control condition) followed by a strategy-based intervention called 'Strategiebasierte Textverständnis-Therapie bei Aphasie' (StraTexT, 14 face-to-face-sessions, twice per week, 60 min each). Two strategy combinations, Intervention Micro targeting microstructure and Intervention Macro targeting macrostructure, were applied to newspaper and magazine articles. Participants were randomly allocated to two parallel groups that received these strategy combinations in interchanged sequences. Assessments were implemented before and after each period as well as 3 and 6 months after the intervention. The primary outcome measure was text-level reading comprehension measured with the total score of a German version of the Test de Compréhension de Textes (TCT-D). Secondary outcome measures addressed the self-reported perception of reading abilities, reading activities and feelings about reading (German version of the Comprehensive Assessment of Reading in Aphasia CARA reading questionnaire) as well as selected cognitive functions. OUTCOMES & RESULTS: The per-protocol-analysis included data from 22 participants. We found significant small improvements up to 6 months post-intervention compared to pre-intervention in the TCT-D Total (d  =  0.35-0.46) as well as medium to large improvements in the CARA questionnaire (d  =  0.68-0.96). Up to 3 months after the intervention, treatment-induced improvements in the TCT-D Total were significantly larger than change without treatment during the control condition. There was no evidence of moderator effects. Furthermore, we found improvements in several cognitive functions. CONCLUSIONS & IMPLICATIONS: Reading strategies can lead to long-term improvements in text-level reading comprehension and in self-reported reading abilities, feelings about reading and reading activities in aphasia. In regular clinical settings, it seems reasonable to implement both Intervention Micro and Intervention Macro. It remains important to investigate participant characteristics that contribute to treatment success. WHAT THIS PAPER ADDS: What is already known on the subject Systematic reviews and multiple case studies suggest that reading strategies are a promising approach to treat text-level reading comprehension in aphasia. The efficacy of reading strategies has been demonstrated for different populations. However, to date no group study has evaluated the efficacy of reading strategies on text-level reading comprehension in people with aphasia. What this study adds This study provides the first group-level evidence about the efficacy of a systematic strategy-based intervention in 22 people with post-stroke chronic aphasia. During 14 treatment sessions, participants applied four reading strategies to newspaper and magazine articles within two intervention components called Intervention Micro and Intervention Macro (two strategies per intervention component). We found improvements in text-level reading comprehension for at least 3 months post-intervention, as well as effects on selected cognitive functions and self-reported reading abilities, thoughts and feelings about reading and the ability to engage in reading activities. What are the clinical implications of this work? The strategies and materials evaluated in this study could be used in clinical practice with people with aphasia. In order to replicate treatment effects in clinical practice, we suggest applying the strategy combination with the same protocol features (e.g., frequency, duration, homework, product orientation) as in this study, implementing Intervention Micro and Intervention Macro sequentially in either order. As treatment response was not equal in all individuals, it seems important to investigate individual features that contribute to treatment success.

Trait reactance as psychological motivation to reject vaccination: Two longitudinal studies and one experimental study.

Anti-science attitudes can be resilient to scientific evidence if they are rooted in psychological motives. One such motive is trait reactance, which refers to the need to react with opposition when one's freedom of choice has been threatened. In three studies, we investigated trait reactance as a psychological motivation to reject vaccination. In the longitudinal studies (n = 199; 293), we examined if trait reactance measured before the COVID-19 pandemic was related to people's willingness to get vaccinated against COVID-19 up to 2 years later during the pandemic. In the experimental study (n = 398), we tested whether trait reactance makes anti-vaccination attitudes more resistant to information and whether this resistance can be mitigated by framing the information to minimize the risk of triggering state reactance. The longitudinal studies showed that higher trait reactance before the COVID-19 pandemic was related to lower willingness to get vaccinated against COVID-19. Our experimental study indicated that highly reactant individuals' willingness to vaccinate was unaffected by the amount and framing of the information provided. Trait reactance has a strong and durable impact on vaccination willingness. This highlights the importance of considering the role of trait reactance in people's vaccination-related decision-making.

Science Communication as a Collective Intelligence Endeavor: A Manifesto and Examples for Implementation.

Effective science communication is challenging when scientific messages are informed by a continually updating evidence base and must often compete against misinformation. We argue that we need a new program of science communication as collective intelligence-a collaborative approach, supported by technology. This would have four key advantages over the typical model where scientists communicate as individuals: scientific messages would be informed by (a) a wider base of aggregated knowledge, (b) contributions from a diverse scientific community, (c) participatory input from stakeholders, and (d) better responsiveness to ongoing changes in the state of knowledge.

Healthcare professionals' attitudes to mandatory COVID-19 vaccination: Cross-sectional survey data from four European countries.

Mandatory vaccinations are widely debated since they restrict individuals' autonomy in their health decisions. As healthcare professionals (HCPs) are a common target group of vaccine mandates, and also form a link between vaccination policies and the public, understanding their attitudes toward vaccine mandates is important. The present study investigated physicians' attitudes to COVID-19 vaccine mandates in four European countries: Finland, France, Germany, and Portugal. An electronic survey assessing attitudes to COVID-19 vaccine mandates and general vaccination attitudes (e.g. perceived vaccine safety, trust in health authorities, and openness to patients) was sent to physicians in the spring of 2022. A total of 2796 physicians responded. Across all countries, 78% of the physicians were in favor of COVID-19 vaccine mandates for HCPs, 49% favored COVID-19 vaccine mandates for the public, and 67% endorsed COVID-19 health passes. Notable differences were observed between countries, with attitudes to mandates found to be more positive in countries where the mandate, or similar mandates, were in effect. The associations between attitudes to mandates and general vaccination attitudes were mostly small to neglectable and differed between countries. Nevertheless, physicians with more positive mandate attitudes perceived vaccines as more beneficial (in Finland and France) and had greater trust in medical authorities (in France and Germany). The present study contributes to the body of research within social and behavioral sciences that support evidence-based vaccination policymaking.

Endorsement of alternative medicine and vaccine hesitancy among physicians: A cross-sectional study in four European countries.

Vaccine hesitancy has become a threat to public health, especially as it is a phenomenon that has also been observed among healthcare professionals. In this study, we analyzed the relationship between endorsement of complementary and alternative medicine (CAM) and vaccination attitudes and behaviors among healthcare professionals, using a cross-sectional sample of physicians with vaccination responsibilities from four European countries: Germany, Finland, Portugal, and France (total N = 2,787). Our results suggest that, in all the participating countries, CAM endorsement is associated with lower frequency of vaccine recommendation, lower self-vaccination rates, and being more open to patients delaying vaccination, with these relationships being mediated by distrust in vaccines. A latent profile analysis revealed that a profile characterized by higher-than-average CAM endorsement and lower-than-average confidence and recommendation of vaccines occurs, to some degree, among 19% of the total sample, although these percentages varied from one country to another: 23.72% in Germany, 17.83% in France, 9.77% in Finland, and 5.86% in Portugal. These results constitute a call to consider health care professionals' attitudes toward CAM as a factor that could hinder the implementation of immunization campaigns.

High-resolution ro-vibrational and rotational spectroscopy of HC3O.

The ro-vibrational and pure rotational spectra of the linear ion HC3O+ have been investigated in a 4 K cryogenic ion trap instrument. For this, a novel action spectroscopic technique, called leak-out-spectroscopy (LOS, Schmid et al., J. Phys. Chem. A 2022, 126, 8111), has been utilized and characterized. In total, 45 ro-vibrational transitions within the fundamental band of the ν1 C-H stretching mode were measured with a band center at 3237.132 cm-1, as well as 34 lines from the combination band ν2 + ν4, and 41 lines tentatively identified as the combination band ν2 + ν5 + ν7, interleaved and resonant with ν1. Surprisingly, also two hot bands were detected despite the cryogenic operation temperature. Based on the novel action spectroscopy approach, a new double-resonance rotational measurement scheme was established, consisting of rotational excitation followed by vibrational excitation. Seven rotational transitions were observed between 89 and 180 GHz. Highly accurate spectroscopic parameters were extracted from a fit using all available data. In addition, a pulsed laser system has been employed to record a low resolution vibrational spectrum, in order to demonstrate the compatibility of such lasers with the LOS method.

A taxonomy of anti-vaccination arguments from a systematic literature review and text modelling.

The proliferation of anti-vaccination arguments is a threat to the success of many immunization programmes. Effective rebuttal of contrarian arguments requires an approach that goes beyond addressing flaws in the arguments, by also considering the attitude roots-that is, the underlying psychological attributes driving a person's belief-of opposition to vaccines. Here, through a pre-registered systematic literature review of 152 scientific articles and thematic analysis of anti-vaccination arguments, we developed a hierarchical taxonomy that relates common arguments and themes to 11 attitude roots that explain why an individual might express opposition to vaccination. We further validated our taxonomy on coronavirus disease 2019 anti-vaccination misinformation, through a combination of human coding and machine learning using natural language processing algorithms. Overall, the taxonomy serves as a theoretical framework to link expressed opposition of vaccines to their underlying psychological processes. This enables future work to develop targeted rebuttals and other interventions that address the underlying motives of anti-vaccination arguments.

International adaptation and validation of the Pro-VC-Be: measuring the psychosocial determinants of vaccine confidence in healthcare professionals in European countries.

BACKGROUND: Healthcare professionals (HCPs) play an important role in vaccination; those with low confidence in vaccines are less likely to recommend them to their patients and to be vaccinated themselves. The study's purpose was to adapt and validate long- and short-form versions of the International Professionals' Vaccine Confidence and Behaviors (I-Pro-VC-Be) questionnaire to measure psychosocial determinants of HCPs' vaccine confidence and their associations with vaccination behaviors in European countries. RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODS: After the original French-language Pro-VC-Be was culturally adapted and translated, HCPs involved in vaccination (mainly GPs and pediatricians) across Germany, Finland, France, and Portugal completed a cross-sectional online survey in 2022. A 10-factor multigroup confirmatory factor analysis (MG-CFA) of the long-form (10 factors comprising 34 items) tested for measurement invariance across countries. Modified multiple Poisson regressions tested the criterion validity of both versions. RESULTS: 2,748 HCPs participated. The 10-factor structure fit was acceptable to good everywhere. The final MG-CFA model confirmed strong factorial invariance and showed very good fit. The long- and short-form I-Pro-VC-Be had good criterion validity with vaccination behaviors. CONCLUSION: This study validates the I-Pro-VC-Be among HCPs in four European countries; including long- and short-form tools for use in research and public health.

Tailoring interventions to suit self-reported format preference does not decrease vaccine hesitancy.

Individually tailored vaccine hesitancy interventions are considered auspicious for decreasing vaccine hesitancy. In two studies, we measured self-reported format preference for statistical vs. anecdotal information in vaccine hesitant individuals, and experimentally manipulated the format in which COVID-19 and influenza vaccine hesitancy interventions were presented (statistical vs. anecdotal). Regardless of whether people received interventions that were in line with their format preference, the interventions did not influence their vaccine attitudes or vaccination intentions. Instead, a stronger preference for anecdotal information was associated with perceiving the material in both the statistical and the anecdotal interventions as more frustrating, less relevant, and less helpful. However, even if the participants reacted negatively to both intervention formats, the reactions to the statistical interventions were consistently less negative. These results suggest that tailoring COVID-19 and influenza vaccine hesitancy interventions to suit people's format preference, might not be a viable tool for decreasing vaccine hesitancy. The results further imply that using statistics-only interventions with people who hold anti-vaccination attitudes may be a less risky choice than using only anecdotal testimonies.

When Science Becomes Embroiled in Conflict: Recognizing the Public's Need for Debate while Combating Conspiracies and Misinformation.

Most democracies seek input from scientists to inform policies. This can put scientists in a position of intense scrutiny. Here we focus on situations in which scientific evidence conflicts with people's worldviews, preferences, or vested interests. These conflicts frequently play out through systematic dissemination of disinformation or the spreading of conspiracy theories, which may undermine the public's trust in the work of scientists, muddy the waters of what constitutes truth, and may prevent policy from being informed by the best available evidence. However, there are also instances in which public opposition arises from legitimate value judgments and lived experiences. In this article, we analyze the differences between politically-motivated science denial on the one hand, and justifiable public opposition on the other. We conclude with a set of recommendations on tackling misinformation and understanding the public's lived experiences to preserve legitimate democratic debate of policy.

Leak-Out Spectroscopy, A Universal Method of Action Spectroscopy in Cold Ion Traps.

A novel method of spectroscopy in ion traps termed leak-out spectroscopy (LOS) is presented. Here, mass-selected, cold ions are excited by an infrared laser. In a subsequent collision with a neutral buffer gas particle, their internal energy is then transferred to kinetic energy. As a result, these ions leak out from the ion trap and are detected. The LOS scheme is generally applicable, very sensitive, and close to background-free when operated at low temperature. The potential of this method is demonstrated and characterized here for the first time by recording the rotationally resolved spectrum of the C-H stretching vibration ν1 of linear C3H+. Besides performing high-resolution spectroscopy, this method opens up the way for analyzing the composition of trap content, for example, determining isomer ratios, by selectively expelling isomers or other isobaric ions from the trap. Likewise, LOS can be used to prepare clean samples of structural and nuclear spin isomers.

Public policy and conspiracies: The case of mandates.

Although conspiracy theories are only endorsed by a minority, conspiracy theories can nonetheless compromise public health measures to control the COVID-19 pandemic. Individuals who endorse conspiracy theories were less likely to wear masks, comply with social distancing, or get vaccinated. This poses a challenge to public health policy, in particular because vaccine uptake lags behind targets because of resistance from a relatively small, but highly vocal, number of people. One policy tool is to enact vaccine mandates, which, while controversial, have successfully increased vaccination uptake. In this article, we review the evidence about whether mandates can be successful, and whether they trigger increased opposition and conspiracy beliefs. We discuss the implications for using mandates in public health policy and argue that decisions about mandates need to be weighed against the consequences of alternative measures-which may also increase conspiracy beliefs albeit for different reasons.