Terms of debate: Consensus definitions to guide the scientific discourse on visual distraction.

Hypothesis-driven research rests on clearly articulated scientific theories. The building blocks for communicating these theories are scientific terms. Obviously, communication - and thus, scientific progress - is hampered if the meaning of these terms varies idiosyncratically across (sub)fields and even across individual researchers within the same subfield. We have formed an international group of experts representing various theoretical stances with the goal to homogenize the use of the terms that are most relevant to fundamental research on visual distraction in visual search. Our discussions revealed striking heterogeneity and we had to invest much time and effort to increase our mutual understanding of each other's use of central terms, which turned out to be strongly related to our respective theoretical positions. We present the outcomes of these discussions in a glossary and provide some context in several essays. Specifically, we explicate how central terms are used in the distraction literature and consensually sharpen their definitions in order to enable communication across theoretical standpoints. Where applicable, we also explain how the respective constructs can be measured. We believe that this novel type of adversarial collaboration can serve as a model for other fields of psychological research that strive to build a solid groundwork for theorizing and communicating by establishing a common language. For the field of visual distraction, the present paper should facilitate communication across theoretical standpoints and may serve as an introduction and reference text for newcomers.

Adapting attentional control settings in a shape-changing environment.

In rich visual environments, humans have to adjust their attentional control settings in various ways, depending on the task. Especially if the environment changes dynamically, it remains unclear how observers adapt to these changes. In two experiments (online and lab-based versions of the same task), we investigated how observers adapt their target choices while searching for color singletons among shape distractor contexts that changed over trials. The two equally colored targets had shapes that differed from each other and matched a varying number of distractors. Participants were free to select either target. The results show that participants adjusted target choices to the shape ratio of distractors: even though the task could be finished by focusing on color only, participants showed a tendency to choose targets matching with fewer distractors in shape. The time course of this adaptation showed that the regularities in the changing environment were taken into account. A Bayesian modeling approach was used to provide a fine-grained picture of how observers adapted their behavior to the changing shape ratio with three parameters: the strength of adaptation, its delay relative to the objective distractor shape ratio, and a general bias toward specific shapes. Overall, our findings highlight that systematic changes in shape, even when it is not a target-defining feature, influence how searchers adjust their attentional control settings. Furthermore, our comparison between lab-based and online assessments with this paradigm suggests that shape is a good choice as a feature dimension in adaptive choice online experiments.

The Distractor Positivity Component and the Inhibition of Distracting Stimuli.

There has been a long-lasting debate about whether salient stimuli, such as uniquely colored objects, have the ability to automatically distract us. To resolve this debate, it has been suggested that salient stimuli do attract attention but that they can be suppressed to prevent distraction. Some research supporting this viewpoint has focused on a newly discovered ERP component called the distractor positivity (PD), which is thought to measure an inhibitory attentional process. This collaborative review summarizes previous research relying on this component with a specific emphasis on how the PD has been used to understand the ability to ignore distracting stimuli. In particular, we outline how the PD component has been used to gain theoretical insights about how search strategy and learning can influence distraction. We also review alternative accounts of the cognitive processes indexed by the PD component. Ultimately, we conclude that the PD component is a useful tool for understanding inhibitory processes related to distraction and may prove to be useful in other areas of study related to cognitive control.

Testing a relational account of search templates in visual foraging.

Search templates guide human visual attention toward relevant targets. Templates are often seen as encoding exact target features, but recent studies suggest that templates rather contain "relational properties" (e.g., they facilitate "redder" stimuli instead of specific hues of red). Such relational guidance seems helpful in naturalistic searches where illumination or perspective renders exact feature values unreliable. So far relational guidance has only been demonstrated in rather artificial single-target search tasks with briefly flashed displays. Here, we investigate whether relational guidance also occurs when humans interact with the search environment for longer durations to collect multiple target elements. In a visual foraging task, participants searched for and collected multiple targets among distractors of different relationships to the target colour. Distractors whose colour differed from the environment in the same direction as the targets reduced foraging efficiency to the same amount as distractors whose colour matched the target colour. Distractors that differed by the same colour distance but in the opposite direction of the target colour did not reduce efficiency. These findings provide evidence that search templates encode relational target features in naturalistic search tasks and suggest that attention guidance based on relational features is a common mode in dynamic, real-world search environments.

Electrophysiological correlates of attentional capture in joint action.

In joint action, agents are assumed to represent their partner's task to optimize joint performance. However, the neurophysiological processes underlying the processing of the partner's task have not been widely investigated. Pairs of participants were asked to perform a joint version of a visual search task in either a cooperative or a competitive social context. During the task, one agent's neural activity was recorded using electroencephalography (EEG). The alpha-lateralization index was calculated as [(contralateral - ipsilateral)/(contralateral + ipsilateral)] × 100 to examine attentional selection or suppression of the laterally presented stimulus. A negative alpha-lateralization indicates lower alpha-band power over the contralateral sites compared with the ipsilateral sites and was related to attentional selection. A positive alpha-lateralization indicates higher alpha-band power over the contralateral sites compared with the ipsilateral sites and was related to attentional suppression. Behavioural results showed impeded search performance when the partner target was present. Furthermore, EEG time-frequency results showed that the partner target induced a negative parieto-occipital alpha-lateralization, indicating that it captured attention, when the agent target was absent. When the agent target was present, the parieto-occipital alpha-lateralization index was negative for laterally presented partner target in the cooperative and positive in the competitive social context, indicative of attentional capture in the cooperative condition and suppression of the partner target in the competitive condition. In sum, our study showed that humans tune their attentional processing towards a partner target in a joint action task. This attentional tuning was shown to be affected by social context and the presence of the agent's own target.

Target templates and the time course of distractor location learning.

When searching for a shape target, colour distractors typically capture our attention. Capture is smaller when observers search for a fixed target that allows for a feature-specific target template compared to a varying shape singleton target. Capture is also reduced when observers learn to predict the likely distractor location. We investigated how the precision of the target template modulates distractor location learning in an additional singleton search task. As observers are less prone to capture with a feature-specific target, we assumed that distractor location learning is less beneficial and therefore less pronounced than with a mixed-feature target. Hierarchical Bayesian parameter estimation was used to fit fine-grained distractor location learning curves. A model-based analysis of the time course of distractor location learning revealed an effect on the asymptotic performance level: when searching for a fixed-feature target, the asymptotic distractor cost indicated smaller distractor interference than with a mixed-feature target. Although interference was reduced for distractors at the high-probability location in both tasks, asymptotic distractor suppression was less pronounced with fixed-feature compared to mixed-feature targets. We conclude that with a more precise target template less distractor location learning is required, likely because the distractor dimension is down-weighted and its salience signal reduced.

Humans trade off search costs and accuracy in a combined visual search and perceptual task.

To interact with one's environment, relevant objects have to be selected as targets for saccadic eye movements. Previous studies have demonstrated that factors such as visual saliency and reward influence saccade target selection, and that humans can dynamically trade off these factors to maximize expected value during visual search. However, expected value in everyday situations not only depends on saliency and reward, but also on the required time to find objects, and the likelihood of a successful object-interaction after search. Here we studied whether search costs and the accuracy to discriminate an object feature can be traded off to maximize expected value. We designed a combined visual search and perceptual discrimination task, where participants chose whether to search for an easy- or difficult-to-discriminate target in search displays populated by distractors that shared features with either the easy or the difficult target. Participants received a monetary reward for correct discriminations and were given limited time to complete as many trials as they could. We found that participants considered their discrimination performance and the search costs when choosing targets and, by this, maximized expected value. However, the accumulated reward was constrained by noise in both the choice of which target to search for, and which elements to fixate during search. We conclude that humans take into account the prospective search time and the likelihood of successful a object-interaction, when deciding what to search for. However, search performance is constrained by noise in decisions about what to search for and how to search for it.

Selection history and task predictability determine the precision expectations in attentional control.

Predictive processing frameworks have demonstrated the central role that prediction plays in a range of cognitive processes including bottom-up and top-down mechanisms of attention control. However, relatively little is understood about how predictive processes interact with the third main determinant of attentional priority - selection history. In this experiment, participants developed a history of either color or shape selection while we observed the impact of these histories in an additional singleton search task using behavioral measures and ERP measures of attentional control. Throughout the experiment, participants were encouraged to predict the upcoming display, but prediction errors were either high or low depending on session. Persistent group differences in our results showed that selection history contributes to the precision weighting of a stimulus, and that this is mediated by overall prediction error. Color-singleton distractors captured attention and required greater suppression when participants had a history of color selection; however, these participants gained large benefits when the upcoming stimuli were highly predictable. We suggest that selection history modulates the precision expectations for a feature in a persistent and implicit way, producing an attentional bias that predictability can help to counteract, but cannot prevent or eliminate entirely.

Color me impressed: A partner's target feature captures visual attention.

Attending to a target is more difficult in the presence of a salient distractor. The present study investigated whether social value can modulate the extent to which distractors capture attention. Two participants sitting side-by-side performed a visual search task in cooperative and competitive conditions. Search displays contained either both targets, one target and a neutral stimulus or an ambiguous and a neutral stimulus. Results showed that agents took longer to respond to targets presented together with the partner's target compared to a neutral stimulus of equal salience. Agents also produced more false alarms in response to stimuli whose color lay between their own and the partner's target color compared to stimuli lying between the colors of their target and a neutral stimulus. These results suggest that stimuli with features relevant to a partner can capture attention more than neutral but equally salient stimuli, indicating that social value affects selective attention in a similar way as task goals and selection history.

Combined influences of strategy and selection history on attentional control.

Visual attention is guided by top-down mechanisms and pre-stimulus task preparation, but also by selection history (i.e., the bias to prioritize previously attended items). Here we examine how these influences combine. Two groups of participants completed two intermingled tasks. One task involved categorization of a unique target; one group categorized the target based on color, and the other based on shape. The other task involved searching for a target defined by unique shape while ignoring a distractor defined by unique color. Our expectation was that the search task would be difficult for the color-categorization group because their categorization task required attentional resolution of color, but the search task required that they ignore color. In some experimental blocks, trials from the two tasks appeared predictably, giving the color-categorization group an opportunity to strategically prepare by switching between color-prioritizing and shape-prioritizing attentional templates. We looked to pre-stimulus oscillatory activity as a direct index of this preparation, and to reaction times and post-stimulus ERPs for markers of resultant change in attentional deployment. Results showed that preparation in the color-categorization group optimized attentional templates, such that these participants became less sensitive to the color distractor in the search task. But preparation was not sufficient to entirely negate the influence of selection history, and participants in the color-categorization group continued to show a propensity to attend to the color distractor. These results indicate that preparatory effort can be scaled to the anticipated attentional requirements, but attention is nevertheless considerably biased by selection history.

A Revised Framework for the Investigation of Expectation Update Versus Maintenance in the Context of Expectation Violations: The ViolEx 2.0 Model.

Expectations are probabilistic beliefs about the future that shape and influence our perception, affect, cognition, and behavior in many contexts. This makes expectations a highly relevant concept across basic and applied psychological disciplines. When expectations are confirmed or violated, individuals can respond by either updating or maintaining their prior expectations in light of the new evidence. Moreover, proactive and reactive behavior can change the probability with which individuals encounter expectation confirmations or violations. The investigation of predictors and mechanisms underlying expectation update and maintenance has been approached from many research perspectives. However, in many instances there has been little exchange between different research fields. To further advance research on expectations and expectation violations, collaborative efforts across different disciplines in psychology, cognitive (neuro)science, and other life sciences are warranted. For fostering and facilitating such efforts, we introduce the ViolEx 2.0 model, a revised framework for interdisciplinary research on cognitive and behavioral mechanisms of expectation update and maintenance in the context of expectation violations. To support different goals and stages in interdisciplinary exchange, the ViolEx 2.0 model features three model levels with varying degrees of specificity in order to address questions about the research synopsis, central concepts, or functional processes and relationships, respectively. The framework can be applied to different research fields and has high potential for guiding collaborative research efforts in expectation research.

How feature context alters attentional template switching.

In real-world tasks visual attention is rarely aimed at a single object. Humans rather "forage" the visual scene for information, dynamically switching attentional templates. Several visual search studies have found that observers often use suboptimal attentional control strategies, possibly to avoid effort. Here, we investigated with a foraging paradigm if observers' reluctance to switch between attentional templates increases with template specificity. To that end, we manipulated the feature context of displays in which participants "foraged" moving stimuli on a tablet-PC. Experiment 1 (N = 35) revealed a decline in switching tendency and foraging efficiency with increasing feature-space distance between target alternatives. Experiment 2 (N = 36) found even lower flexibility with distractor color close to target colors and strongest impairments with distractor color in between target colors. Our results demonstrate that visual information sampling is most flexible when broad (instead of very specific) templates and relational search strategies are possible (e.g., attending to "redder" objects), with implications for both attention research and applications, especially in visual-foraging-like tasks, such as baggage screening or medical image assessment. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2021 APA, all rights reserved).

End in view: Joint end-state comfort depends on gaze and extraversion.

This study investigated how humans adapt to a partner's movement in a joint pick-and-place task and examined the role of gaze behavior and personality traits in adapting to a partner. Two participants sitting side-by-side transported a cup from one end of a table to the other. The participant sitting on the left (the agent) moved the cup to an intermediate position from where the participant sitting on the right (the partner) transported it to a goal position with varying orientations. Hand, finger, cup movements and gaze behavior were recorded synchronously via motion tracking and portable eye tracking devices. Results showed interindividual differences in the extent of the agents' motor adaptation to the joint action goal, which were accompanied by differences in gaze patterns. The longer agents directed their gaze to a cue indicating the goal orientation, the more they adapted the rotation of the cup's handle when placing it at the intermediate position. Personality trait assessment showed that higher extraverted tendencies to strive for social potency went along with more adaptation to the joint goal. These results indicate that agents who consider their partner's end-state comfort use their gaze to gather more information about the joint action goal compared to agents who do not. Moreover, the disposition to enjoy leadership and make decisions in interpersonal situations seems to play a role in determining who adapts to a partner's task in joint action.

Local and global context repetitions in contextual cueing.

In contextual cueing tasks, participants can use a repeating local context to learn to detect the target, yet most contextual cueing studies have relied on repeating global context properties. We examined whether observers can use local context repetitions in a similar manner as they use global context repetitions. In addition, we examined how reward-predicting context features modulate the use of local and global contexts. Participants searched through contexts in which either the entire context configuration or only a local context around the target repeated, intermixed with novel contexts. Half of the context items appeared in a color signaling either low or high reward. We found that local context repetitions led to comparable benefits in response times and fixation count as global context repetitions did. Surprisingly, reward magnitude did not affect performance in local nor in global contexts. The results suggest that a local chunk of distractors can be used for context learning and attention guidance in a similar manner as the global context configuration. We suggest that the proportion of repeated and novel context trials is crucial for context learning and that our combination of locally and globally repeating contexts provided an environment that facilitated learning in both context types because it allowed predicting the target location from the context in most of the trials.

Priming of grasp affordance in an ambiguous object: evidence from ERPs, source localization, and motion tracking.

Object affordance refers to possibilities to interact with the objects in our environment, such as grasping. Previous research shows that objects that afford an action activate the motor system and attract attention, for example they elicit an enhanced frontal negativity and posterior P1 in the event-related potential. An effect on posterior N1 is discussed. However, previous findings might have resulted from physical differences between affording and non-affording stimuli, rather than affordance per se. Here we replicated the frontal negativity and posterior P1 effects and further explored the posterior N1 in affordance processing under constant visual input. An ambiguous target was primed either with an affording (pencils) or non-affording (trees) context. Although physically always identical, the target elicited an enhanced frontal negativity and posterior P1 in the pencil prime condition. Posterior N1 was reduced and grip aperture in a grasping task was smaller in the affording context. Source localization revealed stronger activation in occipital and parietal regions for targets in pencil versus tree prime trials. Thus, we successfully show that an ambiguous object primed with an affording context is processed differently than when primed with a non-affording context. This could be related to the ambiguous object acquiring a potential for action through priming.

Differing Time Courses of Reward-Related Attentional Processing: An EEG Source-Space Analysis.

Since our environment typically contains more information than can be processed at any one time due to the limited capacity of our visual system, we are bound to differentiate between relevant and irrelevant information. This process, termed attentional selection, is usually categorized into bottom-up and top-down processes. However, recent research suggests reward might also be an important factor in guiding attention. Monetary reward can bias attentional selection in favor of task-relevant targets and reduce the efficiency of visual search when a reward-associated, but task-irrelevant distractor is present. This study is the first to investigate reward-related target and distractor processing in an additional singleton task using neurophysiological measures and source space analysis. Based on previous studies, we hypothesized that source space analysis would find enhanced neural activity in regions of the value-based attention network, such as the visual cortex and the anterior cingulate. Additionally, we went further and explored the time courses of the underlying attentional mechanisms. Our neurophysiological results showed that rewarding distractors led to a stronger attentional capture. In line with this, we found that reward-associated distractors (compared with reward-associated targets) enhanced activation in frontal regions, indicating the involvement of top-down control processes. As hypothesized, source space analysis demonstrated that reward-related targets and reward-related distractors elicited activation in regions of the value-based attention network. However, these activations showed time-dependent differences, indicating that the neural mechanisms underlying reward biasing might be different for task-relevant and task-irrelevant stimuli.

Impaired disengagement of attention from computer-related stimuli in Internet Gaming Disorder: Behavioral and electrophysiological evidence.

BACKGROUND AND AIMS: Attentional biases contribute to the maintenance of addictive behaviors. For the problematic use of online gaming - recognized as Internet Gaming Disorder (IGD) - first evidence points to a bias towards in-game stimuli. This study aimed to provide behavioral and electrophysiological evidence for a generalized bias towards computer-related stimuli, and to identify the specific attentional processes contributing to this bias: facilitated attention deployment, impaired disengagement or failed suppression. METHOD: Twenty participants with IGD and 23 casual gamers performed a visual search task with photographs of real-world objects. Either the target or a to-be-ignored distractor was addiction-relevant (computer-related), whereas all other items were addiction-irrelevant (related to cars or sport). Event-related potential components associated with facilitated attentional deployment to the target (NT), its post-selection processing (SPCN), and suppression of irrelevant information (PD) were analyzed. RESULTS: Unlike casual gamers, gamers with IGD exhibited prolonged reaction times and increased SPCN amplitudes for computer-related stimuli, reflecting their continued attentional processing. At the individual level, larger SPCN amplitudes were associated with longer delays in reaction time. DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS: This pattern of results indicates that the disengagement of attention from computer-related stimuli is impaired in IGD. More generally, our findings demonstrate that conditioning processes occur in IGD, and thus open up new avenues for treatment.

Voluntary Control of Task Selection Does Not Eliminate the Impact of Selection History on Attention.

The human visual system can only process a fraction of the information present in a typical visual scene, and selection is historically framed as the outcome of bottom-up and top-down control processes. In this study, we evaluated how a third factor, an individual's selection history, interacts with top-down control mechanisms during visual search. Participants in our task were assigned to one of two groups in which they developed a history of either shape or color selection in one task, while searching for a shape singleton in a second task. A voluntary task selection procedure allowed participants to choose which task they would perform on each trial, thereby maximizing their top-down preparation. We recorded EEG throughout and extracted lateralized ERP components that index target selection (NT) and distractor suppression (PD). Our results showed that selection history continued to guide attention during visual search, even when top-down control mechanisms were maximized with voluntary task selection. For participants with a history of color selection, the NT component elicited by a shape target was attenuated when accompanied by a color distractor, and the distractor itself elicited a larger PD component. In addition, task-switching results revealed that participants in the color group had larger, asymmetric switch costs implying increased competition between task sets. Our results support the notion that selection history is a significant factor in attention guidance, orienting the visual system reflexively to objects that contradict an individual's current goals-even when these goals are intrinsically selected and prepared ahead of time.

Reward-predicting distractor orientations support contextual cueing: Persistent effects in homogeneous distractor contexts.

Recent work on contextual cueing has shown that reward can facilitate context learning, e.g., when salient but task-irrelevant context features signal reward magnitude. Whether task-relevant context features yield a similar facilitating effect is unclear. Also, emergence and persistence of context learning for contexts associated with different reward magnitudes remains unclear. The present study investigated whether reward increases the speed with which context learning emerges, resulting in an earlier but asymptotically similar contextual cueing effect, or whether reward persistently increases context learning, visible as a larger contextual cueing effect on an asymptotical level. Reward was associated to the predominant orientation of the L-distractors, and the number of context repetitions was increased considerably. Results showed contextual cueing, i.e., faster responses and fewer fixations in repeated compared to novel contexts for all reward magnitudes. Moreover, a high reward led to a more pronounced contextual cueing effect. We developed a model-based approach to explicitly assess the non-linear decline and asymptotic level of the response time curves and to quantify how they were altered by reward. A hierarchical Bayesian parameter estimation revealed that reward decreased the asymptotic level of the repeated contexts' response times. Our results therefore show that reward leads to a persistent advantage in contextual cueing rather than to earlier but asymptotically similar context learning.

Cueing distraction: electrophysiological evidence for anticipatory active suppression of distractor location.

It is well known that processing at upcoming target locations can be facilitated, but mixed results have been obtained regarding the inhibition of irrelevant locations when advance information about distractors is available on a trial-to-trial basis. Here, we provide electrophysiological evidence that distractor locations can be anticipatorily suppressed. In an additional singleton search task, distractor cues were presented before the search display, which were either fully predictive or non-predictive of the location of the upcoming salient colour distractor. The PD component of the event-related potential, a marker of active suppression, was elicited by lateral singletons and smaller following predictive than non-predictive cues, indicating that less suppression was required upon presentation of the distractor when its location was known in advance. Presumably, excitability of regions processing the predictively cued locations was anticipatorily reduced to prevent distraction. This idea was further supported by the finding that larger individual cueing benefits in reaction time were associated with stronger reductions of the PD. There was no behavioural benefit at the group level, however, and implications for the role of individual differences and for the measurement of inhibition in distractor cueing tasks are discussed. The enhancement of target locations, reflected by the NT component, was not modulated by the predictiveness of the cues. Overall, our findings add to a growing literature highlighting the importance of inhibitory mechanisms for the guidance of spatial attention by showing that irrelevant locations can be anticipatorily suppressed in a top-down fashion, reducing the impact of even salient stimuli.