Creating Cultural and Lifestyle Awareness About Dementia and Co-morbidities.

Dementia is a major health concern in society, particularly in the aging population. It is alarmingly increasing in ethnic minorities such as Native Americans, African Americans, Hispanics/Latinos, and to some extent Asians. With increasing comorbidities of dementia such as diabetes, obesity, and hypertension, dementia rates are expected to increase in the next decade and beyond. Understanding and treating dementia, as well as determining how to prevent it, has become a healthcare priority across the globe for all races and genders. Awareness about dementia and its consequences such as healthcare costs, and caregiver burden are immediate needs to be addressed. Therefore, it is high time for all of us to create awareness about dementia in society, particularly among Hispanics/Latinos, Native Americans, and African Americans. In the current article, we discuss the status of dementia, cultural, and racial impacts on dementia diagnosis and care, particularly in Hispanic populations, and possible steps to increase dementia awareness. We also discussed factors that need to be paid attention to, including, cultural & language barriers, low socioeconomic status, limited knowledge/education, religious/spiritual beliefs and not accepting modern medicine/healthcare facilities. Our article also covers both mental & physical health issues of caregivers who are living with patients with dementia, Alzheimer's disease, and Alzheimer's disease-related dementias. Most importantly, we discussed possible measures to create awareness about dementia, including empowering community advocacy, promoting healthy lifestyle choices, education on the impact of nutrition, encouraging community participation, and continued collaboration and evaluation of the success of dementia awareness.

Overlooked Cases of Mild Cognitive Impairment: Implications to Early Alzheimer's Disease.

Mild cognitive impairment (MCI) marks the initial phase of memory decline or other cognitive functions like language or spatial perception, while individuals typically retain the capacity to carry out everyday tasks independently. Our comprehensive article investigates the intricate landscape of cognitive disorders, focusing on MCI and Alzheimer's disease (AD) and Alzheimer's disease-related dementias (ADRD). The study aims to understand the signs of MCI, early Alzheimer's disease, and healthy brain aging while assessing factors influencing disease progression, pathology development and susceptibility. A systematic literature review of over 100 articles was conducted, emphasizing MCI, AD and ADRD within the elderly populations. The synthesis of results reveals significant findings regarding ethnicity, gender, lifestyle, comorbidities, and diagnostic tools. Ethnicity was found to influence MCI prevalence, with disparities observed across diverse populations. Gender differences were evident in cognitive performance and decline, highlighting the need for personalized management strategies. Lifestyle factors and comorbidities were identified as crucial influencers of cognitive health. Regarding diagnostic tools, the Montreal Cognitive Assessment (MoCA) emerged as superior to the Mini-Mental State Examination (MMSE) in early MCI detection. Overall, our article provides insights into the multifaceted nature of cognitive disorders, emphasizing the importance of tailored interventions and comprehensive assessment strategies for effective cognitive health management.

SuperAgers and centenarians, dynamics of healthy ageing with cognitive resilience.

Graceful healthy ageing and extended longevity is the most desired goal for human race. The process of ageing is inevitable and has a profound impact on the gradual deterioration of our physiology and health since it triggers the onset of many chronic conditions like dementia, osteoporosis, diabetes, arthritis, cancer, and cardiovascular disease. However, some people who lived/live more than 100 years called 'Centenarians" and how do they achieve their extended lifespans are not completely understood. Studying these unknown factors of longevity is important not only to establish a longer human lifespan but also to manage and treat people with shortened lifespans suffering from age-related morbidities. Furthermore, older adults who maintain strong cognitive function are referred to as "SuperAgers" and may be resistant to risk factors linked to cognitive decline. Investigating the mechanisms underlying their cognitive resilience may contribute to the development of therapeutic strategies that support the preservation of cognitive function as people age. The key to a long, physically, and cognitively healthy life has been a mystery to scientists for ages. Developments in the medical sciences helps us to a better understanding of human physiological function and greater access to medical care has led us to an increase in life expectancy. Moreover, inheriting favorable genetic traits and adopting a healthy lifestyle play pivotal roles in promoting longer and healthier lives. Engaging in regular physical activity, maintaining a balanced diet, and avoiding harmful habits such as smoking contribute to overall well-being. The synergy between positive lifestyle choices, access to education, socio-economic factors, environmental determinants and genetic supremacy enhances the potential for a longer and healthier life. Our article aims to examine the factors associated with healthy ageing, particularly focusing on cognitive health in centenarians. We will also be discussing different aspects of ageing including genomic instability, metabolic burden, oxidative stress and inflammation, mitochondrial dysfunction, cellular senescence, immunosenescence, and sarcopenia.

Treating Alzheimer's disease using nanoparticle-mediated drug delivery strategies/systems.

The administration of promising medications for the treatment of neurodegenerative disorders (NDDs), such as Alzheimer's disease (AD), Parkinson's disease (PD), Huntington's disease (HD), and amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) is significantly hampered by the blood-brain barrier (BBB). Nanotechnology has recently come to light as a viable strategy for overcoming this obstacle and improving drug delivery to the brain. With a focus on current developments and prospects, this review article examines the use of nanoparticles to overcome the BBB constraints to improve drug therapy for AD The potential for several nanoparticle-based approaches, such as those utilizing lipid-based, polymeric, and inorganic nanoparticles, to enhance drug transport across the BBB are highlighted. To shed insight on their involvement in aiding effective drug transport to the brain, methods of nanoparticle-mediated drug delivery, such as surface modifications, functionalization, and particular targeting ligands, are also investigated. The article also discusses the most recent findings on innovative medication formulations encapsulated within nanoparticles and the therapeutic effects they have shown in both preclinical and clinical testing. This sector has difficulties and restrictions, such as the need for increased safety, scalability, and translation to clinical applications. However, the major emphasis of this review aims to provide insight and contribute to the knowledge of how nanotechnology can potentially revolutionize the worldwide treatment of NDDs, particularly AD, to enhance clinical outcomes.

Cell-Free DNA As Peripheral Biomarker of Alzheimer's Disease.

Alzheimer's disease (AD) and Alzheimer's disease-related disorders (ADRD) are progressive neurodegenerative diseases without cure. Alzheimer's disease occurs in 2 forms, early-onset familial AD and late-onset sporadic AD. Early-onset AD is a rare (~1%), autosomal dominant, caused by mutations in presenilin-1, presenilin-2, and amyloid precursor protein genes and the other is a late-onset, prevalent and is evolved due to age-associated complex interactions between environmental and genetic factors, in addition to apolipoprotein E4 polymorphism. Cellular senescence, promoting the impairment of physical and mental functions is constituted to be the main cause of aging, the primary risk factor for AD, which results in progressive loss of cognitive function, memory, and visual-spatial skills for an individual to live or act independently. Despite significant progress in the understanding of the biology and pathophysiology of AD, we continue to lack definitive early detectable biomarkers and/or drug targets that can be used to delay the development of AD and ADRD in elderly populations. However, recent developments in the studies of DNA double-strand breaks result in the release of fragmented DNA into the bloodstream and contribute to higher levels of cell-free DNA (cf-DNA). This fragmented cf-DNA can be released into the bloodstream from various cell types, including normal cells and cells undergoing apoptosis or necrosis and elevated levels of cf-DNA in the blood have the potential to serve as blood blood-based biomarker for early detection of AD and ADRD. The overall goal of our study is to discuss the latest developments in circulating cell-free DNA into the blood in the progression of AD and ADRD. Our article summarized the status of research on double-strand breaks and circulating cell-free DNA in both healthy and disease states and how these recent developments can be used to develop early detectable biomarkers for AD and ADRD. Our article also discussed the impact of lifestyle and epigenetic factors that are involved in DNA double-strand breaks and circulating cell-free DNA in AD and ADRD.

Is Effective Recruitment Strategy Critical to Assess Brain Cognitive Function of Super Agers in Rural West Texas.

Our commentary aims to elucidate the importance of participant recruitment strategy in healthy brain aging study, particularly in rural West Texas, where more than 50% of the population are Hispanics and Latinos. The objective of our health aging study is to investigate the possible influence of biological, sociodemographic, and lifestyle factors on the occurrence of chronic diseases and dementia in the aging populations of West Texas. The success of this initiative is, in large part, reliant on high-quality, effective recruitment of participants. To that end, we propose an increase in our strategic recruitment efforts for both healthy, cognitively superior agers as well as those with mild cognitive impairment and patients with Alzheimer's disease in rural west Texas. We discussed, multi-advertising approaches, including ads in the local newspapers, local TV Channels and poster boards in senior centers.

Mechanisms of pain in aging and age-related conditions: Focus on caregivers.

Pain is a complex, subjective experience that can significantly impact quality of life, particularly in aging individuals, by adversely affecting physical and emotional well-being. Whereas acute pain usually serves a protective function, chronic pain is a persistent pathological condition that contributes to functional deficits, cognitive decline, and emotional disturbances in the elderly. Despite substantial progress that has been made in characterizing age-related changes in pain, complete mechanistic details of pain processing mechanisms in the aging patient remain unknown. Pain is particularly under-recognized and under-managed in the elderly, especially among patients with Alzheimer's disease (AD), Alzheimer's disease-related dementias (ADRD), and other age-related conditions. Furthermore, difficulties in assessing pain in patients with AD/ADRD and other age-related conditions may contribute to the familial caregiver burden. The purpose of this article is to discuss the mechanisms and risk factors for chronic pain development and persistence, with a particular focus on age-related changes. Our article also highlights the importance of caregivers working with aging chronic pain patients, and emphasizes the urgent need for increased legislative awareness and improved pain management in these populations to substantially alleviate caregiver burden.

Alzheimer's disease and Alzheimer's disease-related dementias in Hispanics: Identifying influential factors and supporting caregivers.

Alzheimer's disease (AD) and Alzheimer's disease-related dementias (ADRD) are the primary public health concerns in the United States and around the globe. AD/ADRD are irreversible mental illnesses that primarily impair memory and thought processes and may lead to cognitive decline among older individuals. The prevalence of AD/ADRD is higher in Native Americans, followed by African Americans and Hispanics. Increasing evidence suggests that Hispanics are the fastest-growing ethnic population in the USA and worldwide. Hispanics develop clinical symptoms of AD/ADRD and other comorbidities nearly seven years earlier than non-Hispanic whites. The consequences of AD/ADRD can be challenging for patients, their families, and caregivers. There is a significant increase in the burden of illness, primarily affecting Hispanic/Latino families. This is partly due to their strong sense of duty towards family, and it is exacerbated by the inadequacy of healthcare and community services that are culturally and linguistically suitable and responsive to their needs. With an increasing age population, low socioeconomic status, low education, high genetic predisposition to age-related conditions, unique cultural habits, and social behaviors, Hispanic Americans face a higher risk of AD/ADRD than other racial/ethnic groups. Our article highlights the status of Hispanic older adults with AD/ADRD. We also discussed the intervention to improve the quality of life in Hispanic caregivers.

Role of diet and exercise in aging, Alzheimer's disease, and other chronic diseases.

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is a progressive neurodegenerative disease, characterized by memory loss and multiple cognitive impairments. Genetic mutations cause a small proportion (1-2%) of early-onset AD, with mutations in amyloid precursor protein (APP), presenilin 1 (PS1) and presenilin 2 (PS2). Major contributing factors of late-onset AD are ApoE4 genotype, traumatic brain injury, diabetes, obesity, hypertension, cardiovascular conditions, in addition to lifestyle factors, such as unhealthy diet and lack of physical exercise. Disease progression can be delayed and/or prevented to a greater extent by adopting healthy lifestyle with balanced and antioxidant enriched diet and daily exercise. The interaction and interplay of diet, exercise, age, and pharmacological interventions holds a crucial role in the progression, pathogenesis and management of AD and its comorbidities, including diabetes, obesity, hypertension and cardiovascular conditions. Antioxidant enriched diet contributes to brain health, glucose control, weight management, and cardiovascular well-being. Regular exercise removes toxins including free radicals and enhances insulin sensitivity, and supports cardiovascular function. In the current article, we discussed, the role of diet, and exercise in aging, AD and other conditions including diabetes, obesity, hypertension, cardiovascular conditions. This article also highlights the impact of medication, socioeconomic and lifestyle factors, and pharmacological interventions. These aspects were discussed in different races and ethnic groups in Texas, and the US.

Alzheimer's disease and its related dementias in US Native Americans: A major public health concern.

Alzheimer's disease (AD) and Alzheimer's related dementias (ADRD) are growing public health concerns in aged populations of all ethnic and racial groups. AD and ADRD are caused by multiple factors, such as genetic mutations, modifiable and non-modifiable risk factors, and lifestyle. Studies of postmortem brains have revealed multiple cellular changes implicated in AD and ADRD, including the accumulation of amyloid beta and phosphorylated tau, synaptic damage, inflammatory responses, hormonal imbalance, mitochondrial abnormalities, and neuronal loss. These changes occur in both early-onset familial and late-onset sporadic forms. Two-thirds of women and one-third of men are at life time risk for AD. A small proportion of total AD cases are caused by genetic mutations in amyloid precursor protein, presenilin 1, and presenilin 1 genes, and the APOE4 allele is a risk factor. Tremendous research on AD/ADRD, and other comorbidities such as diabetes, obesity, hypertension, and cancer has been done on almost all ethnic groups, however, very little biomedical research done on US Native Americans. AD/ADRD prevalence is high among all ethnic groups. In addition, US Native Americans have poorer access to healthcare and medical services and are less likely to receive a diagnosis once they begin to exhibit symptoms, which presents difficulties in treating Alzheimer's and other dementias. One in five US Native American people who are 45 years of age or older report having memory issues. Further, the impact of caregivers and other healthcare aspects on US Native Americans is not yet. In the current article, we discuss the history of Native Americans of United States (US) and health disparities, occurrence, and prevalence of AD/ADRD, and shedding light on the culturally sensitive caregiving practices in US Native Americans. This article is the first to discuss biomedical research and healthcare disparities in US Native Americans with a focus on AD and ADRD, we also discuss why US Native Americans are reluctant to participate in biomedical research.

Healthy brain aging and delayed dementia in Texas rural elderly.

Healthy aging is the process of preserving and enhancing one's independence, physical and mental well-being, and overall quality of life. It involves the mental, emotional, and cognitive wellness. Although biological and genetic factors have a significant influence on the process of aging gracefully, other adjustable factors also play a crucial role. Adopting positive behaviors such as maintaining a nutritious and balanced diet, engaging in regular physical activity, effectively managing stress and anxiety, ensuring sufficient sleep, nurturing spiritual coping mechanisms, and prioritizing overall well-being from an early stage can collectively influence both lifespan and the quality of health during advanced years. We aim to explore the potential impacts of biological, psychosocial, and environmental factors on the process of healthy cognitive aging in individuals who exhibit healthy aging. Additionally, we plan to present initial findings that demonstrate how maintaining good cognitive health during aging could potentially postpone the emergence of neurodegenerative disorders. We hypothesize that there will be strong associations between biological, environmental, and social factors that cause some elderly to be superior in cognitive health than others. For preliminary data collection, we recruited 25 cognitively healthy individuals and 5 individuals with MCI/AD between the ages of 60-90 years. We conducted anthropometric measurements, and blood biomarker testing, administered surveys, and obtained structural brain magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) scans. The Montreal Cognitive Assessment (MoCA) scores and sub-scores for the healthy group were also reported. We found that at baseline, individuals exhibiting healthy cognitive aging, and those with MCI/AD had comparable measures of anthropometrics and blood biomarkers. The healthy group exhibited lower signs of brain volume loss and the ones observed were age-related. Moreover, within the healthy group, there was a significant correlation (p = 0.003) between age and MoCA scores. Conversely, within the individuals with MCI/AD, the MRI scans showed disease signs of grey and white matter and loss of cerebral volume. Healthy brain aging is a scientific area that remains under-explored. Our current study findings support our hypothesis. Future studies are required in diverse populations to determine the various biological, psychological, environmental, lifestyle, and social factors that contribute to it.

Urgent needs of caregiving in ageing populations with Alzheimer's disease and other chronic conditions: Support our loved ones.

The ageing process begins at birth. It is a life-long process, and its exact origins are still unknown. Several hypotheses attempt to describe the normal ageing process, including hormonal imbalance, formation of reactive oxygen species, DNA methylation & DNA damage accumulation, loss of proteostasis, epigenetic alterations, mitochondrial dysfunction, senescence, inflammation, and stem cell depletion. With increased lifespan in elderly individuals, the prevalence of age-related diseases including, cancer, diabetes, obesity, hypertension, Alzheimer's, Alzheimer's disease and related dementias, Parkinson's, and other mental illnesses are increased. These increased age-related illnesses, put tremendous pressure & burden on caregivers, family members, and friends who are living with patients with age-related diseases. As medical needs evolve, the caregiver is expected to experience an increase in duties and challenges, which may result in stress on themselves, and impact their own family life. In the current article, we assess the biological mechanisms of ageing and its effect on body systems, exploring lifestyle and ageing, with a specific focus on age-related disorders. We also discussed the history of caregiving and specific challenges faced by caregivers in the presence of multiple comorbidities. We also assessed innovative approaches to funding caregiving, and efforts to improve the medical system to better organize chronic care efforts, while improving the skill and efficiency of both informal and formal caregivers. We also discussed the role of caregiving in end-of-life care. Our critical analysis strongly suggests that there is an urgent need for caregiving in aged populations and support from local, state, and federal agencies.

Comprehensive Understanding of Hispanic Caregivers: Focus on Innovative Methods and Validations.

Alzheimer's disease (AD) and Alzheimer's disease-related disorders (ADRD) are late-onset, age-related progressive neurodegenerative disorders, characterized by memory loss and multiple cognitive impairments. Current research indicates that Hispanic Americans are at an increased risk for AD/ADRD and other chronic conditions such as diabetes, obesity, hypertension, and kidney disease, and given their rapid growth in numbers, this may contribute to a greater incidence of these disorders. This is particularly true for the state of Texas, where Hispanics are the largest group of ethnic minorities. Currently, AD/ADRD patients are taken care by family caregivers, which puts a tremendous burden on family caregivers who are usually older themselves. The management of disease and providing necessary/timely support for patients with AD/ADRD is a challenging task. Family caregivers support these individuals in completing basic physical needs, maintaining a safe living environment, and providing necessary planning for healthcare needs and end-of-life decisions for the remainder of the patient's lifetime. Family caregivers are mostly over 50 years of age and provide all-day care for individuals with AD/ADRD, while also managing their health. This takes a significant toll on the caregiver's own physiological, mental, behavioral, and social health, in addition to low economic status. The purpose of our article is to assess the status of Hispanic caregivers. We also focused on effective interventions for family caregivers of persons with AD/ADRD involving both educational and psychotherapeutic components, and a group format further enhances effectiveness. Our article discusses innovative methods and validations to support Hispanic family caregivers in rural West Texas.

Support Provided by Caregivers for Community-Dwelling Obesity Individuals: Focus on Elderly and Hispanics.

Obesity is a chronic disease marked by the buildup of extra adipose tissue and a higher chance of developing concomitant illnesses such as heart disease, diabetes, high blood pressure, and some malignancies. Over the past few decades, there has been a global increase in the prevalence of obesity, which now affects around one-third of the world's population. According to recent studies, a variety of factors, including genetics and biology as well as environmental, physiological, and psychosocial factors, may have a role in the development of obesity. The prevalence of obesity is often higher among Hispanic American groups than among White people in the U.S. Obesity is a widespread condition with a high risk of morbidity and death, and it is well-recognized that the prevalence of comorbidities rises with rising levels of obesity or body mass index. To combat the rising prevalence of obesity in the USA, especially among Hispanics, one of the fastest-growing racial/ethnic groups in the country, there is an urgent need for obesity therapies. The exact cause of this disparity is unclear, but some responsible factors are a lack of education, high unemployment rates, high levels of food insecurity, an unhealthy diet, inadequate access to physical activity resources, a lack of health insurance, and constricted access to culturally adequate healthcare. Additionally, managing obesity and giving needed/timely support to obese people is a difficult responsibility for medical professionals and their loved ones. The need for caregivers is increasing with the increased number of individuals with obesity, particularly Hispanics. Our article summarizes the status of obesity, focusing on Hispanic populations, and we also highlight specific factors that contribute to obesity, including genetics, epigenetics, biological, physiological, and psychosocial factors, medication and disease, environment, and socio-demographics. This article also reviews caregiver duties and challenges associated with caring for people with obesity.

Alzheimer's Disease and Alzheimer's Disease-Related Dementias in African Americans: Focus on Caregivers.

Alzheimer's disease (AD) and Alzheimer's Disease-Related Dementias (ADRD) are chronic illnesses that are highly prevalent in African Americans (AA). AD and ADRD are caused by multiple factors, such as genetic mutations, modifiable and non-modifiable risk factors, and lifestyle. Histopathological, morphological, and cellular studies revealed how multiple cellular changes are implicated in AD and ADRD, including synaptic damage, inflammatory responses, hormonal imbalance, mitochondrial abnormalities, and neuronal loss, in addition to the accumulation of amyloid beta and phosphorylated tau in the brain. The contributions of race, ethnicity, location and socioeconomic status all have a significant impact on the care and support services available to dementia patients. Furthermore, disparities in health care are entangled with social, economic, and environmental variables that perpetuate disadvantages among different groups, particularly African Americans. As such, it remains important to understand how various racial and ethnic groups perceive, access, and experience health care. Considering that the mounting data shows AA may be more susceptible to AD than white people, the demographic transition creates significant hurdles in providing adequate care from family caregivers. Furthermore, there is growing recognition that AD and ADRD pose a significant stress on AA caregivers compared to white people. In this review, we examine the current literature on racial disparities in AD and ADRD, particularly concerning AA caregivers.

Caregivers with Cancer Patients: Focus on Hispanics.

Cancer is a public health concern and causes more than 8 million deaths annually. Cancer triggers include population growth, aging, and variations in the prevalence and distribution of the critical risk factors for cancer. Multiple hallmarks are involved in cancer, including cell proliferation, evading growth suppressors, activating invasion and metastasis, resisting cell death, enabling replicative immortality, reprogramming energy metabolism, and evading immune destruction. Both cancer and dementia are age-related and potentially lethal, impacting survival. With increasing aging populations, cancer and dementia cause a burden on patients, family members, the health care system, and informal/formal caregivers. In the current article, we highlight cancer prevalence with a focus on different ethnic groups, ages, and genders. Our article covers risk factors and genetic causes associated with cancer and types of cancers and comorbidities. We extensively cover the impact of cancer in Hispanics in comparison to that in other ethnic groups. We also discuss the status of caregivers with cancer patients and urgent needs from the state and federal support for caregivers.

Support Provided by Caregivers for Community-Dwelling Diabetic Hispanic Adults with Intellectual Disabilities and Comorbid Conditions.

Diabetes is an age-related chronic health condition and a major public health concern. Diabetes is one of the significant causes of morbidity and mortality and a major contributing factor to dementia. Recent research reveals that Hispanic Americans are at an increased risk of chronic conditions such as diabetes, dementia, and obesity. Recent research also revealed that diabetes develops at least ten years earlier in Hispanics and Latinos than in neighboring non-Hispanic whites. Furthermore, the management of diabetes and providing necessary/timely support is a challenging task for healthcare professionals. Caregiver support is an emerging area of research for people with diabetes, mainly family caregiver support work for Hispanic and Native Americans. Our article discusses several aspects of diabetes, factors associated with diabetes among Hispanics, its management, and how caregivers can support individuals with diabetes.

Therapeutics of Alzheimer's Disease: Recent Developments.

With increasing aging, dementia is a growing public health concern globally. Patients with dementia have multiple psychological and behavioral changes, including depression, anxiety, inappropriate behavior, paranoia, agitation, and hallucinations. The major types of dementia are Alzheimer's disease (AD), vascular dementia (VCID), Lewy body dementia (LBD), frontotemporal dementia (FTD), and mixed dementia (MiAD). Among these, AD is the most common form of dementia in the elderly population. In the last three decades, tremendous progress has been made in understanding AD's biology and disease progression, particularly its molecular basis, biomarker development, and drug discovery. Multiple cellular changes have been implicated in the progression of AD, including amyloid beta, phosphorylated tau, synaptic damage, mitochondrial dysfunction, deregulated microRNAs, inflammatory changes, hormonal deregulation, and others; based on these changes, therapeutic strategies have been developed, which are currently being tested in animal models and human clinical trials. The purpose of our article is to highlight recent therapeutic strategies' developments, critically discuss current strategies' failures, and propose new strategies to combat this devasting mental illness.

Phosphorylated Tau in Alzheimer's Disease and Other Tauopathies.

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is the leading cause of dementia in elderly people. Amyloid beta (Aß) deposits and neurofibrillary tangles are the major pathological features in an Alzheimer's brain. These proteins are highly expressed in nerve cells and found in most tissues. Tau primarily provides stabilization to microtubules in the part of axons and dendrites. However, tau in a pathological state becomes hyperphosphorylated, causing tau dysfunction and leading to synaptic impairment and degeneration of neurons. This article presents a summary of the role of tau, phosphorylated tau (p-tau) in AD, and other tauopathies. Tauopathies, including Pick's disease, frontotemporal dementia, corticobasal degeneration, Alzheimer's disease, argyrophilic grain disease, progressive supranuclear palsy, and Huntington's disease, are the result of misprocessing and accumulation of tau within the neuronal and glial cells. This article also focuses on current research on the post-translational modifications and genetics of tau, tau pathology, the role of tau in tauopathies and the development of new drugs targeting p-tau, and the therapeutics for treating and possibly preventing tauopathies.

Amyloid Beta in Aging and Alzheimer's Disease.

Alzheimer's disease (AD), is a progressive neurodegenerative disease that affects behavior, thinking, learning, and memory in elderly individuals. AD occurs in two forms, early onset familial and late-onset sporadic; genetic mutations in PS1, PS2, and APP genes cause early onset familial AD, and a combination of lifestyle, environment and genetic factors causes the late-onset sporadic form of the disease. However, accelerated disease progression is noticed in patients with familial AD. Disease-causing pathological changes are synaptic damage, and mitochondrial structural and functional changes, in addition to increased production and accumulation of phosphorylated tau (p-tau), and amyloid beta (Aß) in the affected brain regions in AD patients. Aß is a peptide derived from amyloid precursor protein (APP) by proteolytic cleavage of beta and gamma secretases. APP is a glycoprotein that plays a significant role in maintaining neuronal homeostasis like signaling, neuronal development, and intracellular transport. Aß is reported to have both protective and toxic effects in neurons. The purpose of our article is to summarize recent developments of Aß and its association with synapses, mitochondria, microglia, astrocytes, and its interaction with p-tau. Our article also covers the therapeutic strategies that reduce Aß toxicities in disease progression and discusses the reasons for the failures of Aß therapeutics.