Further reductions in the prevalence of obesity in 4-year-old New Zealand children from 2017 to 2019.

OBJECTIVE: To examine whether the prevalence of age- and sex-adjusted BMI at, or above, the 85th, 95th and 99.7th percentiles continues to decline in New Zealand preschool children, over time. METHODS: As part of a national screening programme, 438,972 New Zealand 4-year-old children had their height and weight measured between 2011 and 2019. Age- and sex-adjusted BMI was calculated using WHO Growth Standards and the prevalence of children at, or above, the 85th, 95th, and 99.7th percentiles and at, or below, the 2nd percentile were determined. Log-binomial models were used to estimate linear time trends of ≥85th, ≥95th and ≥99.7th percentiles for the overall sample and separately by sex, deprivation, ethnicity and urban-rural classification. RESULTS: The percentage of children at, or above, the 85th, 95th and 99.7th percentile reduced by 4.9% [95% CI: 4.1%, 5.7%], 3.5% [95% CI: 2.9%, 4.1%], and 0.9% [95% CI: 0.7%, 1.2%], respectively, between '2011/12' and '2018/19'. There was evidence of a decreasing linear trend (risk reduction, per year) for the percentage of children ≥85th (risk ratio (RR): 0.980 [95% CI: 0.978, 0.982]), ≥95th (RR: 0.966 [95% CI: 0.962, 0.969]) and ≥99.7th (RR: 0.957 [95% CI: 0.950, 0.964]) percentiles. Downward trends were also evident across all socioeconomic indicators (sex, ethnicity, deprivation, and urban-rural classification), for each of the BMI thresholds. Larger absolute decreases were evident for children residing in the most deprived compared with the least deprived areas, at each BMI threshold. There appeared to be no consistent trend for the percentage of children ≤2nd percentile. CONCLUSIONS: Reassuringly, continued declines of children with age- and sex-adjusted BMI at, or above, the 85th, 95th and 99.7th percentiles are occurring over time, overall and across all sociodemographic indicators, with little evidence for consistent trends in the prevalence of children at, or below, the 2nd percentile.

The relationship between income poverty and child hospitalisations in New Zealand: Evidence from longitudinal household panel data and Census data.

BACKGROUND: Very little high quality evidence exists on the causal relationship between income poverty and childhood health. We provide a comprehensive overview of the association between household income poverty and hospitalisations for children. METHODS: We used New Zealand's Integrated Data Infrastructure (IDI) to link income poverty data from the Survey of Family, Income and Employment (SoFIE; n = 21,759 households) and the 2013 New Zealand Census (n = 523,302 households) to publicly funded hospital records of children aged 0-17 (SoFIE: n = 39,459; Census, n = 986,901). Poverty was defined as equivalised household income below 60% of the median income, calculated both before and after housing costs, and using both self-reported and tax-recorded income. RESULTS: Correlations for the association between income poverty and hospitalisation were small (ranging from 0.02 to 0.05) and risk ratios were less than 1.35 for all but the rarest outcome-oral health hospitalisation. Weak or absent associations were apparent across age groups, waves of data collection, cumulative effects, and for estimates generated from fixed effects models and random effect models adjusted for age and ethnicity. Alternative measures of deprivation (area-level deprivation and material deprivation) showed stronger associations with hospitalisations (risk ratios ranged from 1.27-2.55) than income-based poverty measures. CONCLUSION: Income poverty is at best weakly associated with hospitalisation in childhood. Measures of deprivation may have a stronger association. Income measures alone may not be sufficient to capture the diversity of household economic circumstances when assessing the poverty-health relationship.

Birth by caesarean section and educational achievement in adolescents.

BACKGROUND: Birth by caesarean section has been shown to alter the composition of the early infant gut microbiota and postulated to influence cognitive outcomes via the gut-brain axis. AIMS: To determine whether birth by caesarean section is associated with secondary school educational achievement. METHODS: Whole-population administrative data were used from anonymised individual level linkage of birth records to educational and health information from the New Zealand Integrated Data Infrastructure (IDI). Participants were 111 843 children born between 1 January 1996 and 31 December 1998 for whom mode of delivery information was available from International Classification of Diseases 9th edition codes in maternal records. The National Certificate of Educational Achievement (NCEA) is the main secondary school qualification undertaken by New Zealand students. Multivariable linear regression models were used to examine the association between mode of delivery and educational achievement. A family fixed effect analysis compared educational achievement outcomes in sibling pairs where one sibling was delivered by caesarean section and one delivered vaginally. RESULTS: After adjustment for potential confounders, there was no significant association between mode of delivery and achievement of university entrance (odds ratio = 0.98, 95% CI: 0.94-1.02). NCEA percentile scores were lower in caesarean born infants (Estimate = -0.37, 95% CI: -0.69 to -0.06)). However, in the fixed effect sibling analysis caesarean section was no longer significantly associated with NCEA percentile scores. CONCLUSIONS: We find that caesarean section is not related to educational outcomes, suggesting that even if the infant gut microbiota is altered in caesarean section, it does not appear to have a measurable impact on adolescent academic achievement.

Medication dispensing for attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder to New Zealand youth.

AIMS: Global trends show an increase in medication dispensing for attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) in young people over time. The current study aimed to examine whether similar trends were observed in New Zealand youth over the period of 2007/08 to 2016/17. METHODS: We estimated the prevalence in ADHD medication dispensing using national pharmaceutical data for each fiscal year from 2007/08 to 2016/17 in approximately 2.4 million New Zealand youth aged 1-24 years. We also examined whether trends varied by sociodemographic factors. RESULTS: The total dispensing prevalence almost doubled from 516 per 100,000 to 996 per 100,000 over the study period. Males had a consistently higher dispensing prevalence relative to females. Young people aged 7-17 years had the highest dispensing prevalence. The most deprived quintile had a slightly lower dispensing prevalence relative to other quintiles. Ethnic differences in dispensing prevalence were apparent, with deprivation differences also existing within most ethnic groups. CONCLUSIONS: Overall, our study showed an increase in ADHD medication use by young people in New Zealand, similar to international findings. Further research is needed into why disparities in dispensing prevalence occur across ethnic and socioeconomic groups.

Associations of Prenatal and Childhood Antibiotic Exposure With Obesity at Age 4 Years.

Importance: Although antibiotics are associated with obesity in animal models, the evidence in humans is conflicting. Objective: To assess whether antibiotic exposure during pregnancy and/or early childhood is associated with the development of childhood obesity, focusing particularly on siblings and twins. Design, Setting, and Participants: This cross-sectional national study included 284 211 participants (132 852 mothers and 151 359 children) in New Zealand. Data analyses were performed for 150 699 children for whom data were available, 30 696 siblings, and 4188 twins using covariate-adjusted analyses, and for 6249 siblings and 522 twins with discordant outcomes using fixed-effects analyses. Data analysis was performed November 2017 to March 2019. Exposure: Exposure to antibiotics during pregnancy and/or early childhood. Main Outcomes and Measures: The main outcome is odds of obesity at age 4 years. Anthropometric data from children born between July 2008 and June 2011 were obtained from the B4 School Check, a national health screening program that records the height and weight of 4-year-old children in New Zealand. These data were linked to antibiotics (pharmaceutical records) dispensed to women before conception and during all 3 trimesters of pregnancy and to their children from birth until age 2 years. Results: The overall study population consisted of 132 852 mothers and 151 359 children (77 610 [51.3%] boys) who were aged 4 to 5 years when their anthropometrical measurements were assessed. Antibiotic exposure was common, with at least 1 course dispensed to 35.7% of mothers during pregnancy and 82.3% of children during the first 2 years of life. Results from covariate-adjusted analyses showed that both prenatal and early childhood exposures to antibiotics were independently associated with obesity at age 4 years, in a dose-dependent manner. Every additional course of antibiotics dispensed to the mothers yielded an adjusted odds ratio (aOR) of obesity in their children (siblings) of 1.02 (95% CI, 0.99-1.06), which was similar to the odds across pregnancy for the whole population (aOR, 1.06; 95% CI, 1.04-1.07). For the child's exposure, the aOR for the association between antibiotic exposure and obesity was 1.04 (95% CI, 1.03-1.05) among siblings and 1.05 (95% CI, 1.02-1.09) among twins. However, fixed-effects analyses of siblings and twins showed no associations between antibiotic exposure and obesity, with aORs of 0.95 (95% CI, 0.90-1.00) for maternal exposure, 1.02 (95% CI, 0.99-1.04) for child's exposure, and 0.91 (95% CI, 0.81-1.02) for twins' exposure. Conclusions and Relevance: Although covariate-adjusted analyses demonstrated an association between antibiotic exposure and odds of obesity, further analyses of siblings and twins with discordant outcomes showed no associations. Thus, these discordant results likely reflect unmeasured confounding factors.

Teacher Burnout and Contextual and Compositional Elements of School Environment.

BACKGROUND: Teachers report higher levels of stress than most occupational groups. Burnout is a specific psychological condition that results from chronic job stress characterized by emotional exhaustion, low personal accomplishment, and depersonalization. This study considers associations between aspects of the school environment and teacher burnout. METHODS: Exploratory analysis of baseline data from a cluster randomized controlled trial of 40 schools and 2278 teachers in the United Kingdom. Multilevel methods were used to consider the associations between different compositional and contextual aspects of the school environment and teacher burnout. RESULTS: There was evidence for school effects on teacher burnout, evidenced by ICCs and likelihood ratio tests, supporting the association between school environment and teacher burnout. The factors most consistently associated with teacher burnout in our study were teachers' perceptions of the school's safety and support and student attitudes to learning. CONCLUSIONS: The school environment does influence teacher burnout. More research is needed to develop and test causal pathways between the school environment and teacher burnout, and to understand ecological and individual predictors of teacher burnout and the interaction between the two.

Microsimulation model of child and adolescent overweight: making use of what we already know.

BACKGROUND: New Zealand has high rates of child overweight and obesity when compared with other countries. Despite an abundance of research documenting the problem, it is unclear what the most effective policy changes or interventions are, and how policy changes might unfold over time within complex systems. METHODS: We use estimates derived from meta-analyses to create a dynamic microsimulation model of child overweight (including obesity). Using census records we created a synthetic birth cohort of 10,000 children. Information on parental education, ethnicity and father's socio-economic position at birth were taken from census records. We used the New Zealand Health Survey to estimate population base rates for the prevalence of overweight and obesity. Information on other modifiers (such as maternal smoking, breastfeeding, preterm birth, regular breakfast consumption and so forth) were taken from three birth cohorts: Christchurch Health and Development Study, The Dunedin Multidisciplinary Health and Development Study and the Pacific Islands Families Study. Published intervention studies were used to derive plausible estimates for changes to modifiers. RESULTS: Reducing the proportion of mothers classified as overweight and obesity (-3.31(95% CI -3.55; -3.07) percentage points), reducing the proportion of children watching two or more hours of TV (-3.78(95% CI -4.01; -3.54)), increasing the proportion of children eating breakfast regularly (-1.71(95% CI -1.96; -1.46)), and reducing the proportion of children born with high birth weights (-1.36(95% CI -1.61; -1.11)), lead to sizable decreases in the estimated prevalence of child overweight (including obesity). Reducing the proportion of mothers giving birth by caesarean (-0.23(95% CI -0.49; -0.23)) and increasing parental education (-0.07(95% CI -0.31; 0.18)) did not impact upon child overweight rates. CONCLUSIONS: We created a working simulation model of New Zealand children that can be accessed by policy makers and researchers to determine known relationships between predictors and child overweight, as well as potential gains from targeting specific pathways.

Decomposing ethnic differences in body mass index and obesity rates among New Zealand pre-schoolers.

OBJECTIVE: To determine the extent to which ethnic differences in BMI Z-scores and obesity rates could be explained by the differential distribution of demographic (e.g. age), familial (e.g. family income), area (e.g. area deprivation), parental (e.g. immigration status), and birth (e.g. gestational age) characteristics across ethnic groups. METHODS: We used data on 4-year-old children born in New Zealand who attended the B4 School Check between the fiscal years of 2010/2011 to 2015/2016, who were resident in the country when the 2013 census was completed (n = 253,260). We implemented an Oaxaca-Blinder decomposition to explain differences in BMI Z-score and obesity between Maori (n = 63,061) and European (n = 139,546) children, and Pacific (n = 21,527) and European children. RESULTS: Overall, 15.2% of the children were obese and mean BMI Z-score was 0.66 (SD = 1.04). The Oaxaca-Blinder decomposition demonstrated that the difference in obesity rates between Maori and European children would halve if Maori children experienced the same familial and area level conditions as Europeans. If Pacific children had the same characteristics as European children, differences in obesity rates would reduce by approximately one third, but differences in mean BMI Z-scores would only reduce by 16.1%. CONCLUSION: The differential distribution of familial, parental, area, and birth characteristics across ethnic groups explain a substantial percentage of the ethnic differences in obesity, especially for Maori compared to European children. However, marked disparities remain.

How universal are universal preschool health checks? An observational study using routine data from New Zealand's B4 School Check.

OBJECTIVES: We aimed to estimate how many children were attending a universal preschool health screen and to identify characteristics associated with non-participation. DESIGN: Analysis of population-level linked administrative data. PARTICIPANTS: Children were considered eligible for a B4 School Check for a given year if:(1) they were ever resident in New Zealand (NZ),(2) lived in NZ for at least 6 months during the reference year, (3) were alive at the end of the reference year, (4) either appeared in any hospital (including emergency) admissions, community pharmaceutical dispensing or general practitioner enrolment datasets during the reference year or (5) had a registered birth in NZ. We analysed 252 273 records over 4 years, from 1 July 2011 to 30 June 2015. RESULTS: We found that participation rates varied for each component of the B4 School Check (in 2014/2015 91.8% for vision and hearing tests (VHTs), 87.2% for nurse checks (including height, weight, oral health, Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire [SDQ] and parental evaluation of development status) and 62.1% for SDQ - Teacher [SDQ-T]), but participation rates for all components increased over time. Maori and Pacific children were less likely to complete the checks than non-Maori and non-Pacific children (for VHTs: Maori: OR=0.60[95% CI 0.61 to 0.58], Pacific: OR=0.58[95% CI 0.60 to 0.56], for nurse checks: Maori: OR=0.63[95% CI 0.64 to 0.61], Pacific: OR=0.67[95% CI 0.69 to0.65] and for SDQ-T: Maori: OR=0.76[95% CI 0.78 to 0.75], Pacific: OR=0.37[95% CI 0.38 to 0.36]). Children from socioeconomically deprived areas, with younger mothers, from rented homes, residing in larger households, with worse health status and with higher rates of residential mobility were less likely to participate in the B4 School Check than other children. CONCLUSION: The patterns of non-participation suggest a reinforcing of existing disparities, whereby the children most in need are not getting the services they potentially require. There needs to be an increased effort by public health organisations, community and whanau/family to ensure that all children are tested and screened.

Child obesity prevalence across communities in New Zealand: 2010-2016.

OBJECTIVE: To assess community-level differences in four-year-old obesity prevalence in New Zealand (NZ), trends over time, and the extent to which differences can be explained by ethnicity, deprivation and urbanicity. METHODS: Obesity measures from the Ministry of Health's B4 School Check were available for 72-92% of NZ four-year-olds for fiscal years 2010/11-2015/16. Ethnicity, deprivation and urbanicity data for the 78 communities were obtained by linking to administrative records. Growth models were used to examine variability in obesity levels and trends over time, and the extent to which ethnicity, deprivation and urbanicity contributed to differences between communities. RESULTS: There were large variations in obesity across communities (range 8.4% to 28.8%). A decline in the prevalence of childhood obesity was observed in most (48 of 78) communities from 2010/11 to 2015/16 (average change=0.2%, range=-2.0% to 1.9%). Around 50% of the variance in obesity between territorial authorities could be explained by differences in socioeconomic deprivation and ethnic composition. CONCLUSIONS: Child obesity varies between NZ communities, but most territorial authorities have experienced a decrease in obesity over the period 2010/11-2015/16. Implications for public health: Addressing deprivation and ethnic inequalities in obesity could substantially reduce community-level differences in obesity in NZ.

Different domains of deprivation and their relationship with obesity in New Zealand 4-year-old children.

BACKGROUND: There is a relationship between childhood obesity and area-level deprivation. While the New Zealand Index of Deprivation (NZDep) has been used widely in research for the past 20 years, the Index of Multiple Deprivation (IMD) was released in 2017. This study aims to investigate the association between deprivation and childhood obesity in New Zealand and compare measures of deprivation. METHODS: Data from 316 794 4-year-olds in New Zealand undertaking the B4 School Check in 2010 to 2016, a national health and development screen, were analysed. Multilevel logistic regression models assessed the relationship between area-level deprivation and individual-level child obesity. Models were adjusted for age, sex, immigration status, ethnicity, and year. Deprivation was measured using the census-based NZDep2013 (deciles) and the administrative data-based IMD (deciles). The seven domains of the IMD were also considered. RESULTS: The relationship between deprivation and obesity was very similar for the IMD and NZDep2013, point estimates were near identical, and confidence intervals overlapped substantially. Higher levels of deprivation were associated with a higher prevalence of child obesity. The relationship between deprivation and child obesity varied considerably across IMD domains. The education domain had the strongest association with child obesity and had an association with child obesity independent of the other domains of deprivation. CONCLUSION: Overall, there was little difference between the NZDep and IMD. However, the IMD's domains and IMD-1 approach reveal more nuanced understandings of the deprivation-obesity gradient, including the importance of area-level education deprivation for predicting child obesity rates.

Socioeconomic Inequalities in Adolescent Substance Use: Evidence From Twenty-Four European Countries.

BACKGROUND: While there is evidence for socioeconomic inequalities in some adolescent substance use behaviors, there is limited information on how socioeconomic inequalities compare across European countries and over time. OBJECTIVES: To compare socioeconomic inequalities in problematic adolescent substance use (regular smoking, heavy episodic drinking, and cannabis use) across 24 European countries at two time points. METHODS: We use the European School Survey Project on Alcohol and Other Drugs (ESPAD) to examine socioeconomic inequalities in problematic adolescent substance use across 24 European countries in 2007 (n = 73,877) and 2011 (n = 71,060) using within country logistic regressions. Socioeconomic inequalities are measured using a relative index of inequality based on highest level of parental education relative to country of residence within survey year. Countries are ranked according to socioeconomic differentials. RESULTS: In 2007, lower socioeconomic status (SES) adolescents had significantly higher odds of heavy episodic drinking in 10 countries, regular smoking in 12 countries, and recent cannabis use in 1 country. In 2011, the number of countries were 11, 15, and 0, respectively. In 2007, lower SES adolescents had a significantly lower odds of heavy episodic drinking in one country, regular smoking in one country, and cannabis use in four countries. In 2011, the number of countries were two, one, and six, respectively. There was little evidence for changes in socioeconomic inequalities over time. CONCLUSIONS: There are large country level differences in socioeconomic inequalities in adolescent substance use.

Pre-pregnancy body mass index and breastfeeding initiation, early cessation and longevity: evidence from the first wave of the UK Millennium Cohort Study.

BACKGROUND: International evidence indicates relationships between pre-pregnancy body mass index (BMI) and breastfeeding behaviours. This study aims to assess associations between key points in the breastfeeding trajectory (initiation, early cessation and longevity) and pre-pregnancy BMI in a recent, nationally representative British cohort. It also aims to explore in the British context potential moderation by mothers' ethnic group. METHODS: The sample comprises 17 113 mothers from the UK Millennium Cohort Study who have information on pre-pregnancy BMI. Associations between pre-pregnancy BMI categories and breastfeeding initiation, early cessation and longevity are tested using logistic regression. Directed acyclic graphics identify appropriate minimal adjustment to block biasing pathways and classify total and direct effects. RESULTS: After adjusting for confounders, there are large differences in breastfeeding early cessation and longevity by pre-pregnancy BMI group. Differences in propensity to initiation are negligible. Having begun breastfeeding, overweight and obese mothers are more likely to cease in the first week and less likely to continue past 4 months. Observed potential mediators within pregnancy and delivery provide little explanation for relationships. Evidence for moderation by ethnicity is scant. CONCLUSIONS: The causal mechanisms underlying relationships between pre-pregnancy overweight, obesity, and breastfeeding behaviours require further research. However, this study suggests pre-pregnancy BMI as one predictive measure for targeting support to women less likely to establish breastfeeding in the early days, and to continue beyond 4 months. The nature of support should carefully be considered and developed, with mind to both intended and potential unintended consequences of intervention given the need for additional investigation into the causes of associations.

Longitudinal deprivation trajectories and risk of cardiovascular disease in New Zealand.

We used longitudinal information on area deprivation status to explore the relationship between residential-deprivation mobility and Cardiovascular Disease (CVD). Data from 2,418,397 individuals who were: enrolled in any Primary Health Organisation within New Zealand (NZ) during at least 1 of 34 calendar quarters between 1st January 2006 and 30th June 2014; aged between 30 and 84 years (inclusive) at the start of the study period; had no prior history of CVD; and had recorded address information were analysed. Including a novel trajectory analysis, our findings suggest that movers are healthier than stayers. The deprivation characteristics of the move have a larger impact on the relative risk of CVD for younger movers than for older movers. For older movers any kind of move is associated with a decreased risk of CVD.

Inequalities in dental caries experience among 4-year-old New Zealand children.

OBJECTIVES: To investigate ethnic-specific deprivation gradients in early childhood dental caries experience considering different domains of deprivation. METHODS: We used cross-sectional near whole population-level data on 318 321 four-year-olds attending the "B4 School check," a national health and development check in New Zealand, across 6 fiscal years (2010/2011 to 2015/2016). The "lift the lip" screening tool was used to estimate experience of any caries and severe caries. We investigated deprivation gradients using the Index of Multiple Deprivation (IMD), which measures seven domains of deprivation across 5958 geographical areas ("data zones"). Ethnicity was categorized into five groups: (i) Maori, (ii) Pacific, (iii) Asian, (iv) Middle Eastern, Latin American and African (MELAA) and (v) European & Other (combined). We used a random intercepts model to estimate mutually adjusted associations between deprivation, ethnicity, age, fiscal year, and evidence of any dental caries experience. RESULTS: Reports of any caries experience decreased from 15.8% (95% CI: 15.7; 15.9%) to 14.7% 95% CI: 14.4; 14.8%), while reports of severe caries experience increased from 3.0% (95% CI: 3.0; 3.1%) to 4.4% (95% CI: 4.3; 4.5%) from 2010/2011 to 2015/2016. This varied by ethnicity with larger increases in severe caries for Pacific children from 7.1% (95% CI: 6.8; 7.4%) to 14.1% (95% CI: 13.7; 14.5%). There were deprivation gradients in dental caries experience with considerable variation by ethnicity and by domain of deprivation. The association between deprivation and dental caries experience was weakest for Asian children and was most pronounced for Pacific and Maori children. CONCLUSION: Socioeconomic gradients in dental caries experience are evident by age 4 years, and these gradients vary by ethnicity and domain of deprivation.

Differences in the risk of cardiovascular disease for movers and stayers in New Zealand: a survival analysis.

OBJECTIVES: To explore if risk of cardiovascular disease (CVD) for participants who moved before their first CVD event is higher than for stayers, and examine whether the relationship is moderated by ethnicity. METHODS: The sample comprised 2,068,360 New Zealand residents enrolled in any Primary Health Organisation, aged between 30 and 84 years, had complete demographic information, and no prior history of CVD. Cox proportional regression was used to compare CVD risk between movers and stayers. The analysis was conducted for the whole sample and stratified by ethnicity. RESULTS: The combined analysis suggested that movers have a lower risk of CVD than stayers. This is consistent for all ethnic groups with some variation according to experience of deprivation change following residential mobility. CONCLUSIONS: Although mobile groups may have a higher risk of CVD than immobile groups overall, risk of CVD in the period following a residential mobility event is lower than for stayers. Results are indicative of a short-term healthy migrant effect comparable to that observed for international migrants.

The role of family and school-level factors in bullying and cyberbullying: a cross-sectional study.

BACKGROUND: Bullying and cyberbullying are common phenomena in schools. These negative behaviours can have a significant impact on the health and particularly mental health of those involved in such behaviours, both as victims and as bullies. This UK study aims to investigate student-level and school-level characteristics of those who become involved in bullying and cyberbullying behaviours as victims or perpetrators. METHODS: We used data from 6667 Year 7 students from the baseline survey of a cluster randomized trial in 40 English schools to investigate the associations between individual-level and school-level variables with bullying victimization, cyberbullying perpetration, and cyberbullying victimization. We ran multilevel models to examine associations of bullying outcomes with individual-level variables and school-level variables. RESULTS: In multilevel models, at the school level, school type and school quality measures were associated with bullying risk: students in voluntary-aided schools were less likely to report bullying victimization (0.6 (0.4, 0.9) p = 0.008), and those in community (3.9 (1.5, 10.5) p = 0.007) and foundation (4.0 (1.6, 9.9) p = 0.003) schools were more likely to report being perpetrators of cyberbullying than students in mainstream academies. A school quality rating of "Good" was associated with greater reported bullying victimization (1.3 (1.02, 1.5) p = 0.03) compared to ratings of "Outstanding." CONCLUSIONS: Bullying victimization and cyberbullying prevalence vary across school type and school quality, supporting the hypothesis that organisational/management factors within the school may have an impact on students' behaviour. These findings will inform future longitudinal research investigating which school factors and processes promote or prevent bullying and cyberbullying behaviours. TRIAL REGISTRATION: Trial ID: ISRCTN10751359 Registered: 11/03/2014 (retrospectively registered).

Systematic review of reviews of observational studies of school-level effects on sexual health, violence and substance use.

For three decades there have been reports that the quality of schools affects student health. The literature is diverse and reviews have addressed different aspects of how the school environment may affect health. This paper is the first to synthesise this evidence using a review of reviews focusing on substance-use, violence and sexual-health. Twelve databases were searched. Eleven included reviews were quality-assessed and synthesised narratively. There is strong evidence that schools' success in engaging students is associated with reduced substance use. There is little evidence that tobacco-control policies and school sexual-health clinics on their own are associated with better outcomes.