Carcinogenic and non-carcinogenic health hazards of potentially toxic elements in commonly consumed rice cultivars in Dhaka city, Bangladesh.

The study aimed to assess the level of potentially toxic elements (As, Cd, Pb, Zn, Cu, Cr, Mn, and Ni) and associated health implications through commonly consumed rice cultivars of Bangladesh available in Capital city, Dhaka. The range of As, Cd, Pb, Zn, Cu, Cr, Mn, and Ni in rice grains were 0.04-0.35, 0.01-0.15, 0.01-1.18, 10.74-34.35, 1.98-13.42, 0.18-1.43, 2.51-22.08, and 0.21-5.96 mg/kg fresh weight (FW), respectively. The principal component analysis (PCA) identified substantial anthropogenic activities to be responsible for these elements in rice grains. The estimated daily intake (EDI) of the elements was below the maximum tolerable daily intake (MTDI) level. The hazard index (HI) was above the threshold level, stating non-carcinogenic health hazards from consuming these rice cultivars. The mean target cancer risk (TCR) of As and Pb exceeded the USEPA acceptable level (10-6), revealing carcinogenic health risks from the rice grains.

Heavy Metals in Common Fishes Consumed in Dhaka, a Megacity of Asia: A Probabilistic Carcinogenic and Non-Carcinogenic Health Hazard.

Heavy metal contamination of fish is a serious public health concern worldwide, including in Bangladesh. In this study, six commonly consumed fish species namely Hilsha (Tenualosa ilisha), Kachki (Corica soborna), Punti (Puntitus ticto), Taki (Channa punctatus), Meni (Nandus nandus), and Tengra (Mystus tengara) were analyzed for arsenic (As), cadmium (Cd), lead (Pb), zinc (Zn), copper (Cu), chromium (Cr), manganese (Mn), and nickel (Ni), by inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry. The fish samples were collected from wholesale markets in Dhaka city, the main business hub of Bangladesh where the fishes converged from countrywide and are redistributed to the whole city. The metal concentration varied among the studied fish species. Hilsha, the national fish of Bangladesh, contained the highest As among the other fishes of this study, whereas Zn, Cd, Cu, Mn, and Ni were the highest in Kachki, and Pb and Cr were the highest in Tengra. The probable source of metal accumulation in the fish species may be the river or marine water that can be contaminated by industrial waste, pesticide, and/or fertilizer use in agriculture and/or commercial fish feeds. All analyzed fish species showed serious heavy metal pollution, having high average pollution load index (APLI) values (> 1). The estimated daily intake (EDI) values for the metals were lower than the maximum tolerable daily intake (MTDI). The hazard index (HI) for all the fish species was above 1 for adults, showing non-carcinogenic health risks. The target carcinogenic risk (TCR) values were below the acceptable limit (10-4) for most of the metals, indicating safe for consumption with respect to the risk of cancer.

Commonly consumed processed packaged foods in Bangladesh are unhealthy and their nutrient contents are not in conformity with the label declaration.

The present study was undertaken to identify the major nutrient content in processed foods commonly consumed in Bangladesh, their label conformity healthiness, and percent daily nutrient contribution. Twenty-four nationally representative composite samples were analyzed using AOAC and other standard methods. Results were compared with label information using a restrictive approach and EU tolerance guidelines. The healthiness of the products was evaluated in terms of the Health Star Rating (HSR) scheme and the UK traffic light labeling system. Among the analyzed samples, fried pulse, chanachur, lozenge, and fried peas had the highest amount of protein, fat, carbohydrates, and dietary fiber, respectively. Biscuits and milk chocolate had high levels of trans fatty acids (TFA) and saturated fatty acids (SFA). It was observed that around half of the products lacked information about saturated fatty acid (46%), followed by total dietary fiber and trans-fat (38% each). Other information was missing in one-fifth of the products, namely protein (17%), total fat (17%), available carbohydrate (17%), energy (17%), sugar (21%), and salt (21%). Label compliance analysis according to the restrictive approach revealed that none of the products accurately reported the salt, sugar, saturated fat, and trans fat content on the label. According to the EU tolerance guideline, approximately half of the products had protein (58%), fat (54%), and carbohydrate (42%) levels that fell within the EU tolerance limit. However, only around one-third of the samples had sugar (21%), salt (38%), and saturated fat (33%) levels that met the EU tolerance limit. In terms of healthiness analysis, according to the HSR, the range of stars was between 0.5 and 2.5 of the foods where fried peas got the highest rating (2.5 stars), while in terms of the UK traffic light system, none of the samples got all green signals. The lozenge got green lights for fat, SFA, and salt contents. It was also found that consumption of 100 g of fried peas or pulse would exceed the acceptable daily limit of salt, sugar, and SFA compared to the daily maximum allowable intake for the 2000 kcal diet recommended by the WHO. However, according to the serving size, biscuits were major contributors of TFA, sugar, and SFA, whereas fried pulse was a key contributor of sodium/salt. Proper regulatory actions should be introduced to promote healthy processed foods with user-friendly front-of-the-pack labeling and monitor their quality to prevent non-communicable diseases (NCDs).

Nutrient density of Bangladeshi foods and its application in planning diet for pregnant women.

Nutrient profiling is a method that classifies foods based on their nutrient content and identifies foods that are high in micronutrients both across and within food groups. This study aimed to identify foods that are rich sources of the seven micronutrients (iron, zinc, calcium, thiamine, riboflavin, vitamin A, and vitamin B12) of public health concern for the Bangladeshi population.. This study developed a metric termed "naturally nutrient-rich score 7 (NNR7)" specifically for third-trimester pregnant women to identify nutrient-dense foods. Further, it computed the nutrient adequacy score (NAS) of the top NNR7-scored foods for seven micronutrients to assess the extent (percent) to which foods can meet pregnant women's recommended dietary allowances (RDA). A linear programming technique was then used to construct a nutrient-adequate model diet for third-trimester pregnant women using the top ten NNR7-scored foods. According to the NNR7, food groups such as leafy vegetables, fish, meat, poultry and eggs, and vegetables are the richest sources of the problem micronutrients. Mutton liver (916.7%), soybean (39.3%), lamb liver (2160%) and duck liver (50.0%) were found to fulfill the highest percentage of the RDA of vitamin A, zinc, vitamin B12, and iron, respectively. In the formulated nutrient-adequate diets for pregnant women, rice, potato, brown wheat flour, and soya oil were universal to all three diets and Bengal gram, orange, Ganges River sprat, and duck liver were the most common ones. The study findings highlight the need for the consumption of foods such as leafy vegetables, fish, meat, poultry, eggs, pulses and vegetables to increase the intake of problematic micronutrients. Planning a nutrient-adequate diet for pregnant women using linear programming can be an alternative approach to optimize and shape food choices to meet their nutritional requirements.

Variations in the Major Nutrient Composition of Dominant High-Yield Varieties (HYVs) in Parboiled and Polished Rice of Bangladesh.

Rice (Oryza sativa L.) is the principal staple food, a fundamental component of food security, a significant source of energy and major nutrients, and a key player in the overall nutritional status in Bangladesh. Parboiling is a common rice-processing treatment in Bangladesh. Recently, polishing has also become a common practice among millers seeking to attract consumers. Polishing may influence the nutrient composition of rice. The present study aimed to investigate the impact of parboiling and polishing on the nutritional content of the five High Yield Varieties (HYVs) of rice (BR11, BRRI dhan28, BRRI dhan29, BRRI dhan49, and BRRI dhan84) and their percent contributions to the Recommended Dietary Allowances (RDA) of vitamins and minerals. All of the rice samples were analyzed for proximate parameters, vitamins (B1, B2, B3, B6, and folate), and minerals (Ca, Mg, Fe, Zn, Na, K, P). Moisture, ash, fat, and total dietary fiber (TDF) were determined gravimetrically, according to the AOAC Official Methods; protein was measured by the Kjeldahl method; B-group vitamins were measured using Ultra Pressure Liquid Chromatography; and mineral content was determined by ICP-OES. The energy, protein, fat, and total dietary fiber (TDF) content of the samples ranged between 342-357 kcal/100 g, 6.79-10.74 g/100 g, 0.31-1.69 g/100 g, and 2.59-3.92 g/100 g respectively. Thiamin, riboflavin, niacin, pyridoxin, and folate content ranged from 0.11-0.25 mg/100 g, 0.01-0.05 mg/100 g, 2.82-6.42 mg/100 g, 0.12-0.30 g/100 g, and 5.40-23.95 g/100 g respectively. In a comparison of parboiling and polishing, macronutrients and vitamin retention were higher in parboiled unpolished rice than in polished unparboiled rice. The minerals (mg/100 g) Ca, Mg, Fe, Zn, Na, K, and P were in the ranges 32.82-44.72, 30.69-58.34, 0.51-0.70,1.83-2.79, 5.00-5.36, 106.49-112.73, and 162.23-298.03. Minerals of BRRI dhan84 were unaffected by polishing and parboiling. BRRI dhan84 contributed a higher percentage of RDA of all B vitamins and minerals. Therefore, to reduce nutrient loss in rice, industries and consumers should be encouraged to avoid polishing or limit polishing to 10% DOM and to consume unpolished rice, either parboiled or unparboiled.

Cost of Recommended Diet (CoRD) and Its Affordability in Bangladesh.

The cost of diet has been recognized as a major determinant of overall diet quality and nutritional outcomes. We aimed to estimate the minimum cost and affordability of the recommended diet based on the updated food-based dietary guidelines (FBDG) in Bangladesh. To compute the cost of the recommended diet (CoRD), we collected retail prices of foods corresponding to each of the food groups in the latest Bangladeshi FBDG. For affordability, the household size and daily food expenditure data were used from the most recent Household Income and Expenditure survey (HIES). The CoRD was calculated based on the average number of servings recommended for each food group; the CoRD was adjusted by a deflation factor and divided by the household's daily food expenditure to estimate affordability. We found that the CoRD was $0.87 (83 BDT) per person per day at the national level. Nationally, about 43% of households could not afford the CoRD, with rural areas bearing a disproportionate share of the burden. We also found households to overspend on starchy staples while underspending on protein-rich foods, fruits, and dairy. These findings highlight the need for immediate implementation of interventions to improve the affordability of the CoRD and redesign policy instruments to create a sustainable food system.

Behind the scene of the prevalence of anaemia: an extended way of reporting.

OBJECTIVE: To develop the methods for an extended reporting of anaemia and to measure the status of the key contextual underlying factors of anaemia. DESIGN: Statistical appraisal of Hb v. key influencers of anaemia in Bangladesh ­ the intake of animal source food (ASF), concentration of Fe in the drinking groundwater (GWI) and the prevalence of congenital Hb disorder (CH) are conducted. The primary data of the National Micronutrient Survey 2011­2012 and the British Geological Survey 2001 are analysed to assess the intake of ASF and the GWI concentration, respectively. The prevalence of thalassaemia from a national survey is used to appraise the CH. ASF is evaluated relative to the 97·5th percentile intake and group scores are assigned. Association of the GWI and Hb is examined by the linear fit and the mspline fit and the group scores are allocated. Group score is allocated for the prevalence of thalassaemia. Inflammation-adjusted ferritin is considered to report Hb. SETTING: A nationwide survey in Bangladesh. PARTICIPANTS: Preschool children (6­59 months), school-age children (6­14 years) and non-pregnant non-lactating women (NPNLW, 15­49 years). RESULTS: The extended reporting to the prevalence of anaemia in Bangladeshi preschool children, school children and women is ­ anaemia 33 % (ASF: 2·08; GWI: 1·75; CH: 2), anaemia 19 % (ASF: 1·98; GWI: 1·56; CH: 2) and anaemia 26 % (ASF: 2·16; GWI: 1·58; CH: 2), respectively. CONCLUSION: The extended reporting of anaemia is a useful tool to understand the status of the key influencers of anaemia, to design the context-customised intervention and to monitor the intervention.

Can guava (Psidium guajava) leaf extracts develop an indigenous, simplified tool for a semi-quantitative assessment of iron in groundwater?

Iron present in the drinking groundwater is attributed to the low burden of iron deficiency (ID) in Bangladesh. The supplemental anemia prevention strategies involving iron need a cautious approach due to the excess load of iron and the side effects. The present pilot study examined the potential of the guava leaf extracts to use as a natural reagent for the assessment of iron in groundwater. Eighteen households with the drinking source of groundwater were randomly selected. Guava leaves were crushed and the shreds of the leaves were mixed with the water sample. Changes of water color were photographed. Five groups were identified - 'whitish', 'shades of pink', 'shades of purple', 'light black' and the 'frank black'. The iron concentration was measured by a test kit device. Each color group was assigned a number on the ordinal scale 1-5. Statistical correlation and agreements were performed between the methods. The positive correlation (Kendall's tau b: 0.89, p < 0.000) and the agreements (Kappa: 0.77, p < 0.000; rho_c: 0.73, p < 0.000) were observed. Guava leaf extracts may standardize an indigenous tool for a semi-quantitative measurement of groundwater iron content. Validation of the tool thus may aid in the design and evaluation of the iron supplementation and fortification programs.

Development of a new food composition table: An updated tool for estimating nutrient intake in Bangladeshi population.

Valid and reliable food composition data have a crucial role in all nutrition-related activities in a country. However, existing food composition tables in Bangladesh date back to 1970s and are outdated in terms of data quality. Consequently, it was imperative to revise the food composition table for Bangladesh (FCTB). This paper describes the generation of an updated food composition database (FCDB) for Bangladesh following international standards. Primary analytical values from 74 foods (including 54 prioritized key foods (KFs)) were generated through component-specific Association of Official Agricultural Chemists (AOAC) or other internationally accredited methods. Secondary compositional values (analytical, estimated, borrowed, or calculated) were assembled and compiled in accordance with the International Network of Food Data Systems (INFOODS) guidelines and standards. The FCDB now contains updated and well-structured reliable values for 447 foods and 89 components that will have important usages for all stakeholders in the country and elsewhere.

Lentil allergens identification and quantification: An update from omics perspective.

Among legumes, the lentil (Lens culinaris) is a major dietary component in many Mediterranean and Asian countries due to its high nutritional value, especially protein. However, allergic reactions triggered by lentil consumption have also been documented in many countries. Complete allergens profiling is critical for better management of lentil food allergies. Earlier studies suggested Len c 1, a 47 kDa vicilin, Len c 2, a seed-specific-biotinylated 66-kDa protein, and Len c 3, low molecular weight lipid transfer proteins (LTPs) were major allergenic proteins in lentils. Recently, mass-spectrometry-based proteomic platforms successfully identified proteins from lentil samples homologous to known plant allergens. Furthermore, in silico analysis using 337 protein sequences revealed lentil allergens that have not previously been identified as potential allergens in lentil. Herein, we discuss the feasibility of omics platforms utilized for lentil allergens profiling and quantification. In addition, we propose some future strategies that might be beneficial for profiling and development of precise assays for lentil allergens and could facilitate identification of the low allergen-containing lentil cultivars.

Phytate-iron molar ratio and bioavailability of iron in Bangladesh.

OBJECTIVE: Phytate, an important component of plant origin foods, works as a chelator for mineral nutrients such as iron. Estimating the phytate-iron molar ratio is a traditional method to assess the bioavailability of dietary iron, and a ratio >1 is suggestive of poor absorption of iron through the intestinal mucosa. In Bangladesh, the ratio is considerably higher; nonetheless, the haemoglobin and ferritin status are satisfactory. Hence, we appraised phytate-iron molar ratios and concomitant haemoglobin and ferritin status. METHODS: Dietary intake of iron and phytate was estimated in non-pregnant non-lactating women and school-age children from a nationally representative survey. The phytate-iron molar ratios were estimated. Linear regressions on haemoglobin for the phytate-iron molar ratios and on molar ratios predicting inflammation-adjusted ferritin were performed. RESULTS: The median ratios were 6.12 in women and 5.47 in children, with corresponding haemoglobin concentrations of 12.6 and 12.5 g/dl. Hypothetical lowering of the ratios by ~50% revealed a nominal increment of haemoglobin and ferritin. CONCLUSION: The standard cut-off phytate-iron molar ratio of >1 is inconsistent with the iron and haemoglobin status of the Bangladeshi population. One plausible explanation for the inconsistency is a non-dietary environmental factor-groundwater iron. Isotope studies incorporating the iron from dietary and the drinking groundwater sources are needed to establish a ratio which might better explain iron bioavailability.

Molar ratios of dietary phytate to minerals and iron status of female residential students in University of Dhaka, Bangladesh.

BACKGROUND: Female undergraduate students may undergo many health implications due to the transition from secondary to undergraduate level. AIM: The study was aimed to assess molar ratios of phytate to minerals (calcium, zinc, and iron) in the diets, and to measure the iron status of resident female students at Dhaka University. METHODS: In total, 180 female students between 18-26 years of age from 3 dormitories of Dhaka University were selected for the study. Dietary intake information was collected over three consecutive days. Multiple-Pass 24-hour recall. Blood hemoglobin and serum ferritin levels were analyzed for sub-sample (20 participants from each dormitory). RESULTS: The mean dietary intake of phytate, calcium, zinc, and iron were estimated at 347.11, 181.04, 6.59, and 7.14 mg/day, and hemoglobin and serum ferritin at 11.34 g/dl, and 18.48 ng/ml, respectively. The respective molar ratios of phytate: calcium, phytate: zinc, phytate: iron and phytate × calcium: zinc were 0.13, 5.27, 4.20, and 21.26 in the diet of the respondents. The prevalence of anemia, iron deficiency and iron deficiency anemia among the respondents was found to be 51.7%, 48.4%, and 28.3%, respectively. Linear regression analysis showed that only zinc intake had positive association with hemoglobin, while iron and zinc intake had a significant positive, and phytate:iron molar ratio had a significant negative association with serum ferritin concentration (p < 0.05). After adjusting all significant determinants of serum ferritin, no predictors have found significant. CONCLUSIONS: Larger and more specific research is needed to clearly understand the mechanism behind anemia and iron deficiency among female residential students.

Proteomic characterization of low molecular weight allergens and putative allergen proteins in lentil (Lens culinaris) cultivars of Bangladesh.

Here, we present the proteome profiling of low-molecular weight (<50 kDa) proteins of seven different lentil cultivars developed by Bangladesh Agricultural Research Institute. A total of 2873 peptides corresponding to 180 unique proteins were identified wherein >24% of them were described lentil allergens. Comparative relative quantitation showed differences in protein abundance of major allergen proteins such as Len c 1.0101, Len c 1.0102, and lipid transfer proteins (LTPs), indicating qualitative and quantitative variations in allergen proteins in lentil cultivars. In this report, for the first-time, the amino acid sequence of LTPs in lentil has been confirmed by high resolution mass spectrometry. In addition, ideal peptides of Len c 1.0101, Len c 1.0102, and LTPs allergens were further determined with multiple reaction monitoring (MRM) analysis. Therefore, this data could provide a great resource for further development of targeted, proteomics-based assays for quantification of lentil allergens.

Amino acid profiles and digestible indispensable amino acid scores of proteins from the prioritized key foods in Bangladesh.

Concentrations of standard amino acids were determined in the composite samples (representing 30 agro-ecological zones of Bangladesh) of six prioritized key dietary protein sources: Oryza sativa (rice), Triticum aestivum (wheat flour), Lens culinaris (lentils), Pangusius pangusius (pangas), Labeo rohita (rohu) and Oreochromis mossambicus (tilapia). Digestible indispensable amino acid scores (DIAAS) was calculated using published data on amino acids' digestibility to evaluate the protein quality of these foods. Indispensable amino acid (IAA) contents (mg IAA/g protein), found to be highest in pangas (430) and lowest in wheat (336), of all these analyzed foods exceeded the FAO recommended daily allowance (277mg IAA/g protein) and contributed on average 40% to total amino acid contents. Untruncated DIAAS values ranged from 51% (lysine) in wheat to 106% (histidine) in pangas and distinguished pangas, rohu, and tilapia containing 'excellent quality' protein (DIAAS>100%) with potential to complement lower quality protein of cereals, fruits, and vegetables.

Pregnant Women Diet Quality and Its Sociodemographic Determinants in Southwestern Bangladesh.

BACKGROUND: Diet diversity of pregnant women is associated with nutrition sufficiency, micronutrient adequacy, and pregnancy outcomes. However, the sociodemographic determinants of diet diversity among pregnant women in low-income countries are not well studied. OBJECTIVE: The analysis was undertaken to study the determinants of high dietary diversity and consumption of micronutrient-rich foods by pregnant women from rural Bangladesh. METHODS: Pregnant women (508) were randomly selected from southwestern Bangladesh and interviewed to collect data about diet and sociodemographic characteristics. A 24-hour recall was used to collect information about diet. Diet diversity score was calculated for 9 major food groups. All analyses were conducted using STATA SE 12. RESULT: The overall mean diet diversity score was low at 4.28 and was significantly high among pregnant women who have higher educational achievement, whose husbands' occupation was business, who live in households of 4 or more family members, and who were dwelling in a house with more than 1 room. Highest gap on knowledge and consumption was reported for 3 food groups including dairy foods, eggs, and dark green leafy vegetables. Consumption of dairy and eggs was lower among women from low socioeconomic status, but no significant association was found between sociodemographic characteristics and consumption of leafy vegetables. CONCLUSION: Our analysis has shown that diet quality of pregnant women was poor and intake of micronutrient-rich foods was low despite having knowledge about the importance of these foods, underscoring the need for promoting the diet quality in developing countries through behavior change communication programs.

Presence of heavy metals in fruits and vegetables: Health risk implications in Bangladesh.

The presence of toxic heavy metals such as As, Cd, Pb, Cr, Mn, Ni, Cu, and Zn in nationally representative samples of highly consumed fruits and vegetables was determined by inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (ICP-MS). Their concentrations exceeded the maximum allowable concentration (MAC) set by FAO/WHO for Pb in mango and Cd in tomato among the analyzed fruits and vegetables. Pb content in mango was found to be six times higher than the safe limit at production level. Health risks associated with the intake of these metals were evaluated in terms of estimated daily intake (EDI), and carcinogenic and noncarcinogenic risks by target hazard quotient (THQ) and hazard index (HI). EDI values of all the metals were found to be below the maximum tolerable daily intake (MTDI). The THQs of all metals were <1, suggesting no health hazards for adult population. However, total THQs of Mn and Cu were >1 through consumption of all vegetables, indicating significant health risks. HI was found to be <1 (0.825) for consumption of fruits; however, it was >1 (3.727) for vegetable consumption, suggesting adverse health effects from vegetable consumption only. The total carcinogenic risk (CR) of As was below the threshold level (10(-6)) and 9.82E-05 for Pb, suggesting no potential CR from As consumption, but indicating the risk of Pb-induced carcinogenesis. The findings of this study reveal the health risks associated with the consumption of heavy metals through the intake of selected fruits and vegetables in adult population of Bangladesh.

Health risk assessment of trace elements via dietary intake of 'non-piscine protein source' foodstuffs (meat, milk and egg) in Bangladesh.

Concentrations of six trace elements [chromium (Cr), nickel (Ni), copper (Cu), cadmium (Cd), lead (Pb) and arsenic (As)] were assessed in 'non-piscine protein source' foodstuffs (meat, milk and eggs) to evaluate contamination level and human health risks in Bangladesh. The range of Cr, Ni, Cu, Cd, Pb and As in the investigated foodstuffs was 1.24-2.17, 1.29-2.56, 0.92-2.31, 0.12-0.44, 0.15-0.48 and 0.14-0.57 mg kg fresh weight(-1), respectively. The estimated mean levels of most of the elements were higher than the maximum allowable concentration (MAC) for dietary foods. The estimated daily intakes (EDIs) of Cr and Cd were higher than the maximum tolerable daily intake (MTDI) for children, indicating that they are more susceptible to toxic elements through food consumption. The target hazard quotients (THQs) and target carcinogenic risk (TCR) of As (THQ > 1 and TCR > 10(-4)) for both the adults and children suggest that the consumers of non-piscine foodstuffs (especially cow milk and chicken meat) are exposed chronically to metal pollution with carcinogenic and non-carcinogenic health consequences.

A comprehensive assessment of arsenic in commonly consumed foodstuffs to evaluate the potential health risk in Bangladesh.

Arsenic (As), particularly of its inorganic form (iAs) is highly toxic, and its presence in food composites is a matter of concern for the public health safety, specifically in Bangladesh which is regarded as the most arsenic affected country throughout the world. This study was carried out to investigate the levels of As in the composite samples of commonly consumed foodstuffs collected from 30 different agro-ecological zones for the first time in Bangladesh. Most of the individual food composites contain a considerable amount of As which was, as a whole, in the range of 0.077-1.5mg/kg fw which was lower than those reported from Spain, EU, France, Korea, whereas higher than those of Mexico, Chile, Japan, Cambodia, Hong Kong, Serbia, respectively. Cereals, vegetables, milk, and fish contribute about 90% to the daily intake of inorganic arsenic. Human health risk of dietary iAs was assessed separately for both the rural and urban adults. The estimated daily dietary intakes (EDI) of iAs for the exposed rural (3.5) and urban residents (3.2 µg/kg-BW/day) clearly exceeded the previous provisional tolerable daily intake (PTDI) value of 2.1 µg/kg-BW/day, recommended by the World Health Organization (WHO). From the health point of view, this study concluded that both the rural and urban residents of Bangladesh are exposed to carcinogenic and non-carcinogenic risks who consume As-contaminated water and foodstuffs.