Generation of LEPR Knockout Rabbits with CRISPR/CAS9 System.

The LEPR gene encodes a leptin hormone receptor, and its mutations are associated with morbid obesity, dysregulation of lipid metabolism, and fertility defects in humans. Spontaneous Lepr mutations have been described in rodents, and Lepr knockout animals have been generated, in particular, using the CRISPR/Cas9 system. Lipid metabolism in rodents significantly differs from that in humans or rabbits, and rabbits are therefore considered as the most relevant model of morbid obesity and lipid metabolism dysregulation in humans. LEPR knockout rabbits have not been reported so far. In this work a LEPR knockout rabbit was generated by introducing a deletion of the region around LEPR exon 10 using the CRISPR/Cas9 system. The body weight of the knockout rabbit was significantly higher than the average body weight of the wild type rabbits. CRISPR/Cas9-mediated generation of LEPR knockout rabbits will allow the development of a model of morbid obesity and endocrine defects due to leptin receptor mutations in humans.

The RRE-Rev Module Has No Effect on the Packaging Efficiency of Cas9 and Gag Proteins into NanoMEDIC Virus-like Particles.

Delivery of ribonucleoprotein complexes of Cas9 nuclease and guide RNA into target cells with virus-like particles (VLP) is one of the novel methods of genome editing and is suitable for gene therapy of human diseases in the future. The efficiency of genome editing with VLPs depends on the Cas9 packaging into VLPs, the process mediated by the viral Gag protein. To improve the packaging of Cas9 into NanoMEDIC VLPs, plasmid constructs for Cas9 and Gag expression were modified by adding the HIV Rev response element (RRE), which was expected to increase the nuclear export of RRE-containing transcripts into the cytosol via the Rev accessory protein, as described for a Vpr-Cas9-based VLP system. The Cas9 and Gag protein levels in cell lysates were found to increase upon cotransfection with either the Rev-expressing plasmid or the empty control plasmid. The effect was independent of the presence of RRE in the transcript. Moreover, AP21967-induced dimerization of FRB and FKBP12, but not plasmid modification with RRE and/or cotransfection with the Rev-expressing plasmid, was shown to play the major role in Cas9 packaging into NanoMEDIC VLPs. The data indicated that it is impractical to use the RRE-Rev module to enhance the packaging of Cas9 nuclease into VLPs.

Efficient Editing of the CXCR4 Locus Using Cas9 Ribonucleoprotein Complexes Stabilized with Polyglutamic Acid.

Gene editing using the CRISPR/Cas9 system provides new opportunities to treat human diseases. Approaches aimed at increasing the efficiency of genome editing are therefore important to develop. To increase the level of editing of the CXCR4 locus, which is a target for gene therapy of HIV infection, the Cas9 protein was modified by introducing additional NLS signals and ribonucleoprotein complexes of Cas9 and guide RNA were stabilized with poly-L-glutamic acid. The approach allowed a 1.8-fold increase in the level of CXCR4 knockout in the CEM/R5 T cell line and a 2-fold increase in the level of knock-in of the HIV-1 fusion peptide inhibitor MT-C34 in primary CD4+ T lymphocytes.

[Combination of ARE and HRE cis- Regulatory Elements Elevates the Activity of Tumor-Specific hTERT Promoter].

Tumor-specific promoters and cis-regulatory genetic elements are used for transcriptional control of therapeutic transgene expression in cancer gene therapy. HRE (hypoxia response element) and ARE (anti-oxidant response elements) cis-regulatory elements are targets for HIF1 and Nrf2 transcriptional factors, respectively, and mediate activation of gene transcription in a response to hypoxia and oxidative stress, characteristic of most solid tumors. Due to these features HREs and AREs are used in genetic constructs for cancer gene therapy to provide tumor-specific therapeutic transgene expression or replication of oncolytic adenovi-ruses. In this work on the basis of the tumor-specific promoter hTERT we have constructed hybrid promoters carrying combinations of HRE and ARE. We showed that upon imitation of hypoxia in human lung cancer cell lines the activity of the hybrid promoter HRE-ARE-hTERT is substantially higher compared to promoters carrying only ARE or HRE. Using in vitro suicide cancer gene therapy with the CD: UPRT/5-FC (cytosine deaminase; uracil phosphoribosyl transferase/5-fluorocytosine) enzyme-prodrug system as a model we showed an enhancement of the cytotoxic effect on human lung cancer cells upon imitation of hypoxia when cytosine deaminase: uracil phosphoribosyl transferase was expressed under the control of the HRE-ARE-hTERT promoter compared to HRE-hTERT and ARE-hTERT promoters. The novel hybrid promoter HRE-ARE-hTERT could be used for transcriptional targeting of therapeutic transgene expression or oncolytic adenovirus replication upon development of novel anti-cancer gene therapeutics.

[Human Antithrombin III Minigene with an Optimized Splicing Pattern].

Antithrombin III (AT3) belongs to the superfamily of serine protease inhibitors (serpins) and is a major anticoagulant in physiological conditions. Based on SERPINC1 gene, a minigene coding for human AT3, which is valuable for medicine and biotechnology, was constructed by minimizing the size of lengthy introns and preserving the splicing site-flanking sequences. An analysis of the minigene splicing pattern identified one correct AT3 transcript and two alternatively spliced transcripts, which formed either due to minigene exons 2 and 3 skipping or an aberrant exon insertion via splicing at cryptic splicing sites in intron 1 of the minigene. Site-directed mutagenesis of the cryptic splicing sites successfully optimized the splicing pattern of the AT3 minigene to completely prevent the generation of the alternative transcripts. The presence of the cryptic splicing sites in intron 1 of the minigene was confirmed with Human Splicing Finder v. 3.1 software, thus demonstrating that putative alternative splicing sites are possible to identify in minimized or hybrid introns of minigenes and to eliminate via mutagenesis before experimentally testing the minigene splicing patterns. The approach to the design of minigenes together with the bioinformatical analysis of the nucleotide sequences of minigene introns can be used to construct minigenes in order to generate transgenic animals producing economically valuable proteins in the milk.

Xenobiotic Response Elements (XREs) from Human CYP1A1 Gene Enhance the hTERT Promoter Activity.

A hybrid 6XRE-hTERT promoter consisting of the hTERT tumor-specific promoter and six copies of the XRE element from the CYP1A1 human gene promoter was created. Using a human lung cancer cells as a model, we showed that XRE elements in the hybrid promoter greatly increase the activity of the hTERT promoter and ensure the reporter gene transcriptional activation in response to the treatment of the cells with the AhR ligand benzo(a)pyrene. However, similar effects were also observed in normal human bronchial epithelial cells HBEpC, which indicates the loss of the tumor-specific activity by the 6XRE-hTERT hybrid promoter. XRE elements can be used for nonspecific transcription enhancement but are unsuitable for the creation of tumor-specific promoters with enhanced activity.

Production of Recombinant Proteins in the Milk of Transgenic Animals: Current State and Prospects.

The use of transgenic animals as bioreactors for the synthesis of the recombinant proteins secreted into milk is a current trend in the development of biotechnologies. Advances in genetic engineering, in particular the emergence of targeted genome editing technologies, have provided new opportunities and significantly improved efficiency in the generation of animals that produce recombinant proteins in milk, including economically important animals. Here, we present a retrospective review of technologies for generating transgenic animals, with emphasis on the creation of animals that produce recombinant proteins in milk. The current state and prospects for the development of this area of biotechnology are discussed in relation to the emergence of novel genome editing technologies. Experimental and practical techniques are briefly discussed.

[Mutations in the Effector Domain of RhoV GTPase Impair Its Binding to Pak1 Protein Kinase].

Atypical RhoV GTPase (Chp/Wrch-2) is a member of the human Rho GTPase family, which belongs to the superfamily of Ras-related small GTPases. The biological functions of RhoV, regulation of its activity, and mechanisms of its action remain largely unexplored. Rho GTPases regulate a wide range of cellular processes by interacting with protein targets called effectors. Several putative RhoV effectors have been identified, including protein kinases of the Pak (p21-activated kinase) family: Pak1, Pak2, Pak4, and Pak6. RhoV GTPase activates Pak1 protein kinase and simultaneously induces its ubiquitin-dependent degradation. Pak1 regulates E-cadherin localization at adherens junctions downstream of RhoV during gastrulation in fish. The effector domain of RhoV mediates its binding to the CRIB (Cdc42/Rac1 interactive binding) motif in the N-terminal p21-binding domain (PBD) of Pak6 protein kinase. The role of the RhoV effector domain in mediating interaction with Pak1 has not been studied. This study has identified mutations in the effector domain of RhoV GTPase (Y60K, T63A, L65A, and D66A) that impair its interaction with Pak1 in the GST-PAK-PBD pull-down assay and coimmunoprecipitation. Our results suggest that the effector domain of RhoV mediates its binding to Pak1, complementing the current view of the molecular basics of RhoV binding to effectors of the Pak family. These data lay the basis for further studies on the role of Pak1 in RhoV-activated signaling pathways and cellular processes.

[Insertion of Multiple Artificial Introns of Universal Design into cDNA during Minigene Construction Assures Correct Transgene Splicing].

The presence of introns is often required for efficient transgene expression. The use of full-length genes for transgenesis is associated with technical difficulties due to the large size of the genetic construct. To solve this problem, we recently suggested a universal design of small artificial introns that ensures efficient splicing. However, the insertion of more than one intron into cDNA might result in the aberrant splicing of the minigene with exon skipping. Here, we showed that the insertion of two artificial introns of universal design into cDNA resulted in a splicing pattern that corresponds to the excision of each intron with an exon between them remaining in the transcript. No transcript formation with exon skipping was detected. Therefore, the developed design of small artificial introns assures splicing solely between the donor and the acceptor splice sites of each single intron and results in the generation of a correct transcript from minigene pre-mRNA. These findings enable the construction of minigenes for transgenesis with more than one artificial intron, with no additional cis-elements required to prevent aberrant splicing.

A Novel Hybrid Promoter ARE-hTERT for Cancer Gene Therapy.

describe a novel hybrid tumor-specific promoter, ARE-hTERT, composed of the human TERT gene promoter (hTERT) and the antioxidant response element (ARE) from the human GCLM gene promoter. The hybrid promoter retains the tumor specificity of the basal hTERT promoter but is characterized by an enhanced transcriptional activity in cancer cells with abnormal activation of the Nrf2 transcription factor and upon induction of oxidative stress. In the in vitro enzyme-prodrug cancer gene therapy scheme, ARE-hTERT promoter-driven expression of CD : UPRT (yeast cytosine deaminase : uracil phosphoribosyltransferase) chimeric protein induced a more pronounced death of cancer cells either upon treatment with 5-fluorouracil (5FC) alone or when 5FC was combined with chemotherapeutic drugs as compared to the hTERT promoter. The developed hybrid promoter can be considered a better alternative to the hTERT promoter in cancer gene therapy schemes.

[Selection of microRNA for providing tumor specificity of transgene expression in cancer gene therapy].

The use of tumor-specific microRNA loss to inhibit transgene expression in normal cells is considered as a way to increase the specificity of gene-therapeutic antitumor drugs. This method assumes the introduction of recognition sites of suppressed in tumor cells microRNAs into transgene transcipt. In the presented work, the efficiency of the strategy for providing the tumor specificity of transgene expression depending on parameters of microRNA expression in normal and tumor cells was studied. It was established that microRNA suppression in tumor cells and the determination of absolute microRNA levels in tumor and normal cells are not sufficient for the adequate estimation of the possibility of specific microRNA usage in the scheme of cancer gene therapy, and particularly do not allow to exclude a significant decrease in the efficiency of the gene-therapeutic drug upon the introduction of microRNA recognition sites. These parameters are only suitable for the preliminary selection of microRNA. The effect of introduction of microRNA recognition sites on transgene expression level in target tumor cells should be validated experimentally. It is suggested that this should be done directly in the cancer gene therapy scheme with monitoring of the therapeutic transgene activity.

mTOR-dependent transcriptional repression of Pdcd4 tumor suppressor in lung cancer cells.

Programmed cell death 4 (Pdcd4) tumor suppressor is frequently lost in tumors of various origins including lung cancer, and its loss contributes to tumor progression. However molecular mechanisms underlying Pdcd4 suppression in lung cancer cells remain largely unexplored. Here we investigated molecular mechanisms of Pdcd4 suppression in lung cancer cells. Besides enhanced mTOR-dependent proteasomal degradation of Pdcd4 protein, we found that Pdcd4 transcription is negatively regulated by mTOR signaling, and localized cis-acting element in Pdcd4 promoter responsible for this effect. In conclusion, we described a novel molecular mechanism of Pdcd4 suppression in cancer cells consisting from mTOR signaling-dependent transcriptional repression of Pdcd4.

Pak6 protein kinase is a novel effector of an atypical Rho family GTPase Chp/RhoV.

Chp/RhoV is an atypical Rho GTPase whose functions are far from being fully understood. To date several effector proteins of Chp have been identified, including p21-activated kinases Pak1, Pak2, and Pak4. Using a yeast two-hybrid system and co-immunoprecipitation, here we show that another p21-activated kinase, Pak6, is a novel Chp-binding protein. Interaction between Chp and Pak6 depends on the activation state of the GTPase, suggesting that Pak6 is an effector protein for Chp. Point mutations in the effector domain of Chp or in the CRIB motif of Pak6 significantly impair the interaction between Chp and Pak6 upon co-immunoprecipitation, suggesting that the binding interface involves the effector domain of Chp and the CRIB motif in Pak6. We found that Chp does not affect the phosphorylation status of the S560 residue in the catalytic domain of Pak6 when Chp and Pak6 are co-expressed in HEK293 cells. Therefore, similarly to Cdc42, Chp is not likely to activate Pak6. In NCI-H1299 cells, Chp co-localizes with Pak6 on vesicular structures in activation state-dependent manner. Taking the data together, we report here the identification of p21-activated kinase Pak6 as a novel effector of the atypical Rho GTPase Chp. Our data suggest further directions in elucidating biological functions of these proteins.

[Study of testicular cancer gene expression in samples of oral leukoplakia and squamous cell carcinoma of the mouth].

Cancer-testis (CT) antigens are normally expressed mostly in human germ cells, there is also an aberrant expression in some tumor cells. This expression profile makes them potential tumor growth biomarkers and a promising target for tumor immunotherapy. Specificity of CT genes expression in oral malignant and potentially malignant diseases, e.g. oral leukoplakia, is not yet studied. Data on CT genes expression profile in leukoplakia would allow developing new diagnostic methods with potential value for immunotherapy and prophylaxis of leukoplakia malignization. In our study we compared CT genes expression in normal oral mucosa, oral leukoplakia and oral squamous cell carcinoma. We are the first to describe CT genes expression in oral leukoplakia without dysplasia. This findings make impossible differential diagnosis of oral leukoplakia and squamous cell carcinoma on the basis of CT genes expression. The prognostic value of CT genes expression is still unclear, therefore the longitudinal studies are necessary.

Application of mRNA regulatory regions to improve tumor specificity of transgene expression.

Efficiency and specificity are two key attributes of anti-cancer drugs including genetic therapeutic agents. We suggest a way to improve specificity of gene therapy drugs based on the ability of 3'-untranslated regions (UTR) of some mRNAs selectively stabilize transcripts only during cell division. The mRNAs of genes encoding DNA methyltransferase I (DNMT1) and topoisomerase IIα (TOP2A) are among such transcripts. When inserted into genetic constructs designed to produce therapeutic protein in tumor cells, such 3'-UTR would lead to diminished effect of therapeutic protein on normal cells, which are characterized by low or absent proliferative activity. However, when included in gene expression cassette, these 3'-UTR might result in decreased transgene expression, thus, overweighting the advantage of increased specificity of expression. We showed that DNMT1 and to the lesser extent TOP2A 3'-UTR do not alter significantly therapeutic transgene expression level in tumor cells, thus, confirming the functionality of the proposed approach.

[Pdcd4 tumor suppressor: properties, functions, and their application to oncology].

Inactivation of tumor suppressors and activation of protooncogenes are critical events in malignant cell transformation and tumor progression. Pdcd4 encodes a protein with tumor suppressor functions, which accounts for an increased interest to Pdcd4 as a potential diagnostic and prognostic marker, as well as a target for antineoplastic therapy. This review summarizes well-known properties and functions of Pdcd4 tumor suppressor and mechanisms of its regulation in tumor cells. It is also focused to the role of Pdcd4 in cellular transformation and tumor progression, as well as on its potential practical application in oncology.

[Suppression of WIFI transcript and protein in non-small cell lung carcinomas].

Changes in WIFI expression, an extracellular inhibitor of Wnt pathway, in non-small cell lung carcinomas were analyzed. Frequent (67% cases) suppression of WIFI transcript in non-small cell lung carcinomas were found. Our results, together with previously published data, suggest that inhibition of WIFI expression often occurs in squamous cell carcinomas and is less typical of adenocarcinomas. It was also found that a decrease in the WIFI transcript in tumors is parallel to concomitant suppression of the WIFI protein level. Our results provide further evidence that the WIFI suppression is a frequent event in the lung carcinogenesis, which might lead to disregulation of Wnt signaling pathway and contribute to tumor progression.

[WIF1: perspectives of application in oncology].

Changes in the intracellular signaling cascades underlay many human pathologies including oncological diseases. Modification of the Wnt-signaling pathway are often associated with development of tumor and may play a significant role in carcinogenesis. This gives rise to a significant interest to studies of regulators and components of the Wnt-signaling pathway and search for approaches to practical implementation of the properties of the regulators. The goal of this work was to review the properties of WIF1 (Wnt inhibitor factor-1), a regulator of Wnt-signaling pathway, as a possible diagnostic and prognostic marker of human tumors, as well as basis for development of novel antitumoral preparations.