Human norovirus in Brazil: an update of reports in different settings.

Norovirus is an important etiologic agent of acute gastroenteritis and has become even more relevant in Brazil after the implementation of the monovalent rotavirus vaccine in 2006 through the public health system, now representing a significant portion of the etiology of acute diarrheal diseases. Although diagnosing acute gastroenteritis caused by norovirus is a relatively simple process, and the infection tends to be self-limited, the virus can be considerably harmful to vulnerable populations, such as children, the elderly, and immunocompromised individuals. The spread of norovirus is also particularly favorable among such groups due to its mode of transmission, favored by cluttered environments such as in hospitals and densely populated regions. Additionally, norovirus' ability to spread through water and food creates the need for measures to ensure adequate sanitation and the development of effective measures to prevent outbreaks and severe manifestations of the disease. This review aims to address the main reports of human norovirus detected in Brazil over the years, focusing on clinical-hospital, food-related, and urban conglomerate contexts, including the circulating strains.

Analysis of viral diversity in dogs with acute gastroenteritis from Brazilian Amazon.

Viral gastroenteritis is commonly reported in dogs and involves a great diversity of enteric viruses. In this research, viral diversity was investigated in dogs with diarrhea in Northern Brazil using shotgun metagenomics. Furthermore, the presence of norovirus (NoV) was investigated in 282 stool/rectal swabs of young/adult dogs with or without diarrhea from two public kennels, based on one-step reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) for genogroup VI and VII (GVI and GVII) and real-time RT-PCR for GI, GII, and GIV. Thirty-one viral families were identified, including bacteriophages. Phylogenetic analyses showed twelve complete or nearly complete genomes belonging to the species of Protoparvovirus carnivoran1, Mamastrovirus 5, Aichivirus A2, Alphacoronavirus 1, and Chipapillomavirus 1. This is the first description of the intestinal virome of dogs in Northern Brazil and the first detection of canine norovirus GVII in the country. These results are important for helping to understand the viral groups that circulate in the canine population.

Epidemiological and molecular surveillance of norovirus in the Brazilian Amazon: description of recombinant genotypes and improvement of evolutionary analysis.

Noroviruses are highly infectious, genetically diverse viruses. Global outbreaks occur frequently, making molecular surveillance important for infection monitoring. This cross-sectional descriptive study aimed to monitor cases of norovirus gastroenteritis in the Brazilian Amazon. Fecal samples were tested by immunoenzymatic assay, RT-PCR and genetic sequencing for the ORF1/ORF2 and protease regions. Bayesian inference with a molecular clock was employed to construct the phylogeny. The norovirus prevalence was 25.8%, with a higher positivity rate among children aged 0-24 months. Genogroup GII accounted for 98.1% of the sequenced samples, while GI accounted for 1.9% of them. The GII.P16/GII.4 genotype was the most prevalent, with an evolution rate of 2.87x10-3 and TMRCA estimated in 2012. This study demonstrates that norovirus is a primary causative agent of gastroenteritis and provides data on viral genetic diversity that may facilitate infection surveillance and vaccine development.

Environmental health of water bodies from a Brazilian Amazon Metropolis based on a conventional and metagenomic approach.

AIMS: The present study aimed to use a conventional and metagenomic approach to investigate the microbiological diversity of water bodies in a network of drainage channels and rivers located in the central area of the city of Belém, northern Brazil, which is considered one of the largest cities in the Brazilian Amazon. METHODS AND RESULTS: In eight of the analyzed points, both bacterial and viral microbiological indicators of environmental contamination-physical-chemical and metals-were assessed. The bacterial resistance genes, drug resistance mechanisms, and viral viability in the environment were also assessed. A total of 473 families of bacteria and 83 families of viruses were identified. Based on the analysis of metals, the levels of three metals (Cd, Fe, and Mn) were found to be above the recommended acceptable level by local legislation. The levels of the following three physicochemical parameters were also higher than recommended: biochemical oxygen demand, dissolved oxygen, and turbidity. Sixty-three bacterial resistance genes that conferred resistance to 13 different classes of antimicrobials were identified. Further, five mechanisms of antimicrobial resistance were identified and viral viability in the environment was confirmed. CONCLUSIONS: Intense human actions combined with a lack of public policies and poor environmental education of the population cause environmental degradation, especially in water bodies. Thus, urgent interventions are warranted to restore the quality of this precious and scarce asset worldwide.

Epidemiological and molecular surveillance of norovirus in the Brazilian Amazon: description of recombinant genotypes and improvement of evolutionary analysis

ABSTRACT Noroviruses are highly infectious, genetically diverse viruses. Global outbreaks occur frequently, making molecular surveillance important for infection monitoring. This cross-sectional descriptive study aimed to monitor cases of norovirus gastroenteritis in the Brazilian Amazon. Fecal samples were tested by immunoenzymatic assay, RT-PCR and genetic sequencing for the ORF1/ORF2 and protease regions. Bayesian inference with a molecular clock was employed to construct the phylogeny. The norovirus prevalence was 25.8%, with a higher positivity rate among children aged 0-24 months. Genogroup GII accounted for 98.1% of the sequenced samples, while GI accounted for 1.9% of them. The GII.P16/GII.4 genotype was the most prevalent, with an evolution rate of 2.87x10−3 and TMRCA estimated in 2012. This study demonstrates that norovirus is a primary causative agent of gastroenteritis and provides data on viral genetic diversity that may facilitate infection surveillance and vaccine development.

Molecular analysis of canine circovirus in dogs from animal shelters in Belém, Pará, northern Brazil: first detection at the amazon region.

The canine circovirus (CanCV) is a single-stranded DNA virus that has become an important emerging virus associated with gastroenteritis in dogs worldwide. In the present study, the CanCV was detected by PCR in 15% (22/147) of dogs from animal shelters in Belém, between 2019 and 2020. We observed an association between the CanCV infection and the presence of diarrhea in animals younger than one year of age (p > 0.01). The Brazilian strains were grouped in Chinese genotypes, with 99.54 to 100% nucleotilde homology. The GMRF Bayesian Skyride used the molecular clock model, which was the best suited technique to plot the dataset. The most recent common ancestor (TMRCA) was estimated in 2017, with the evolution rate of 1.6 x 10-3 s/s/y. The viral family diversity was also investigated, with emphasis on the families of the enteric pathogenic viruses Parvoviridae, Picornaviridae and Astroviridae, which were detected in the CanCV positive pooled samples. This study highlights the importance of the CanCV as an emergent virus that causes diarrhea in Brazilian dogs. The results found herein contribute to the understanding of the role of CanCV in enteric diseases and in the evolutionary molecular characterization of the circulating genotypes. Furthermore, we increased the understanding of the fecal virome in dogs with diarrhea, providing data for the monitoring and prevention viral gastroenteric diseases in domestic animals.

O circovírus canino (CanCV) é um vírus de DNA de fita simples que se tornou um importante vírus emergente associado à gastroenterite em cães em todo o mundo. No presente estudo, o CanCV foi detectado por PCR em 15% (22/147) dos cães de abrigos de animais em Belém, entre 2019 e 2020. Observamos uma associação entre a infecção pelo CanCV e a presença de diarreia em animais menores de um ano de idade (p > 0,01). As linhagens brasileiras foram agrupadas em genótipos chineses, com 99,54 a 100% de homologia nucleotídica. O GMRF Bayesian Skyride foi o modelo de relógio molecular utilizado, sendo o método mais adequado para o conjunto de dados. O ancestral comum mais recente (TMRCA) foi estimado em 2017, com taxa de evolução de 1,6 x 10-3 s/s/ano. A diversidade de famílias virais também foi investigada, com destaque para as famílias dos vírus patogênicos entéricos Parvoviridae, Picornaviridae e Astroviridae, que foram detectadas nos pools de amostras positivas para CanCV. Este estudo destaca a importância do CanCV como um vírus emergente que causa diarreia em cães brasileiros. Os resultados aqui encontrados contribuem para a compreensão do papel do CanCV nas doenças entéricas e na caracterização molecular evolutiva dos genótipos circulantes. Além disso, aumentamos a compreensão do viroma fecal em cães com diarreia, fornecendo dados para o monitoramento e prevenção de doenças gastroentéricas virais em animais domésticos.

Circulation of adenovirus and other viruses in urban drainage channels: an environmental surveillance in Belém, Amazon region, Brazil.

Urban channels in amazon cities are very polluted, with garbage and sewage disposal in these aquatic environments, favoring the high dissemination of waterborne viruses such as human adenovirus (HAdV). The aim of this study was to perform the detection and molecular characterization of adenovirus in urban channels and in a wastewater treatment plant located in a metropolitan city in the Amazon. Additionally, metagenomic analyses were performed to assess viral diversity. Samples were concentrated by organic flocculation, analyzed by quantitative real time PCR (qPCR) and sequenced (Sanger e next generation sequencing). Cell culture was performed to verify the viability of HAdV particles. A total of 104 samples were collected, being the HAdV positivity of 76% (79/104). Among the positive samples, 29.1% (23/79) were characterized as HAdV-F40 (87%, 20/23), HAdV-F41 (8.7%, 2/23), and HAdV-B (4.3%, 1/23). Average precipitation rates ranged from 163 to 614 mm, while the pH ranged from 6.9 to 7.6. Eight positive samples were inoculated into A549 cells and in 4 of these, was observed changes in the structure of the cell monolayer, alteration in the structure of the cell monolayer was observed, but without amplification when analyzed by PCR. The metagenomic data demonstrated the presence of 14 viral families, being the most abundant: Myoviridae (41% of available reads), Siphoviridae (24.5%), Podoviridae (14.1%), and Autographiviridae (6.9%) with more than 85% of the total number of identified reads. This study reinforcing that continuous surveillance may contribute to monitoring viral diversity in aquatic environments and provide early warning of potential outbreaks.

Diversity of picornaviruses detected in diarrheal samples from children in Belém, Brazilian Amazon (1982-2019).

In this investigation, fecal specimens from children with diarrhea were collected from four community studies conducted between 1982 and 2019 in Belém, Brazilian Amazon. A total of 234 samples were tested by quantitative reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction (RT-qPCR) to detect infections by picornaviruses of the Enterovirus (EV), Parechovirus (HPeV), Cosavirus (HCoSV), Kobuvirus (Aichivirus - AiV) and Salivirus (SalV) genera. The positive samples were subjected to different amplification protocols of the VP1 region of the genome, such as nested PCR or snPCR, and were subsequently genotyped by sequencing VP1 and VP3 of the viral genome. Positivity was observed in 76.5% (179/234) of the samples tested using RT-qPCR for at least one virus, and co-infection was observed in 37.4% (67/179) of the cases. EV was detected in 50.8% (119/234), HPeV in 29.9% (70/234), HCoSV in 27.3% (64/234), and AiV/SalV in 2.1% (5/234) of the specimens tested by RT-qPCR. Using nested PCR and/or snPCR techniques, the positivity rates were 94.11% (112/119) for EV, 72.85% (51/70) for HPeV, and 20.31% (13/64) for HCoSV. It was not possible to amplify the samples that were positive for AiV/SalV. Sequencing revealed 67.2% (80/119) EV, 51.4% (36/70) HPeV, and 20.31% (13/64) HCoSV. Forty-five different types of EV were found among species A, B, and C; HCoSV identified five species, including a possible recombinant strain; all HPeV were identified as belonging to species A, in two samples a possible recombination involving three different strains was verified. This study demonstrated the high circulation and diversity of different types of picornaviruses in fecal samples, including those collected more than 30 years ago. This endorsed the evaluation of important points in the epidemiology of these viruses, such as the presence of co-infection and the possibility of knowing more about these agents, considering that some were recently described; therefore, their detection in older samples can provide more data about their ancestry.

Detection of G3 human-like rotavirus in institutionalized dogs from Brazil.

Viral gastroenteritis is a common clinical problem in dogs and group A rotavirus (RVA) is one of the agents involved in this etiology. It mainly affects dogs in the first 6 months of life, and these animals are considered an important reservoir and potential transmitters of the virus to other susceptible hosts, such as humans. Among the different types of RVA, G3 is the most detected in dogs, and this genotype is also involved in infections in other animals, including humans. Thus, the present study aims to investigate the presence of RVA in samples of dogs from a public kennel. A total of 64 fecal samples from dogs with diarrhea were analyzed, collected from April 2019 to March 2020, from the kennel of the Zoonosis Control Center, located in Belém, a city in the North of Brazil. The extracted genetic material was subjected to reverse transcription followed by real-time PCR (RT-qPCR); the positives were tested by RT-PCR with a specific primer for the RVA VP7 gene, after nucleotide sequencing and phylogenetic analysis. One sample was subjected to high-performance sequencing. A positivity of 7.8% (5/64) was observed for RVA, all characterized as G3, grouping in the G3-III lineage, with greater similarity to human samples. Different regions of the RVA genome fragments were found. These results emphasize the need for animal health surveillance to better understand the global strain dispersion of RVA and elucidate possible interspecies transmission events, monitoring the genetic diversity of this pathogen.

Nearly Complete Genome Sequences of Two Canine Mamastrovirus 5 Strains from Latin America.

We report the nearly complete genome sequences of CAstV-PK01 and CAstV-PK03, two canine astrovirus strains belonging to the species Mamastrovirus 5, which were detected in fecal swab samples collected from puppies with diarrhea from two different kennels in the Brazilian Amazon.

Retrospective molecular analysis of norovirus recombinant strains in the amazon region, Brazil.

BACKGROUND: Noroviruses are enteric viruses that cause acute gastroenteritis worldwide. Over two decades, GII.4 genotype was responsible for most cases. However, recombinant strains have emerged and changed the epidemiological context of these infections. OBJECTIVES: The aim of this study was to identify the recombinant genetic strains of norovirus causing gastroenteritis in Brazilian children from the Amazon region. METHODS: We analyzed 534 cases of gastroenteritis between 2015 and 2016. Genotypic characterization was performed by partial sequencing of ORF1 and ORF2. Evolutionary history was inferred by Bayesian inference using MrBayes. Recombinant strains were confirmed by Simplot and RDP4 analysis. FINDINGS: We performed viral detection tests and identified a norovirus frequency of 31.8% (175/534). Based on viral RdRp and VP1 genes, nine genotypes were identified: GIIP31/GII.4, GII·P16/GII.4, GII·P7/GII.6, GII·P21/GII.13, GII·P33/GII.1, GII·P17/GII.17, GI·P7/GI.7, GII·P4/NT, and GII.7/NT. The phylogenetic tree showed evolutionary relationships among the genotypes, including the recombinant strains. This is the first description of GII·P33/GII.1 and GII·P21/GII.13 genotypes in Brazil. CONCLUSION: Norovirus evolution has been characterized by the continuous replacement of variants that have new antigenic properties. In recent years, recombinant strains have displaced GII.4, improving the viral fitness and influencing the viral transmissibility and pathogenicity.

Prevalence and epidemiological characteristics of human immunodeficiency virus-1 infection in an iron mining area with intense migratory flow in Pará State, Brazilian amazon, 2005-2014.

Acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS) caused by human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) is a major global public health problem. The aim of this study is to determine the prevalence of HIV-1 infection in four municipalities of Pará State (Marabá, Parauapebas, Curionópolis, and Canaã dos Carajás), in northern, Brazil. The municipalities are located in the Carajás Complex iron mining area. The employment opportunities result in extensive migratory flow of people. A total of 4771 serum samples were obtained from 2005 to 2014 and were sent to Evandro Chagas Institute, Belém-Pará, where they were tested by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay, with reactive samples confirmed by Western blot analysis. The samples were from individuals from 23 Brazilian states and the Federal District, mainly Maranhão (39.53%) and other municipalities of Pará (34.25%). The total positivity rate was 0.48% (23/4771). The rate was 0.47% (14/2975) in males and 0.50% (9/1796) in females. Of these, 0.33% (14/4275) were from asymptomatic individuals whose serum were collected during the serological survey, 1.81% (9/497) were from cases featuring clinical symptoms including fever/diarrhea/jaundice, which were included in febrile, diarrheal, and icteric syndromes analyzed during the study. The findings indicated the presence of HIV-1 infection in the general population studied. The majority of cases (60.9%, 14 of 23 positive cases) were asymptomatic.

Genotypes of Epstein-Barr virus (EBV1/EBV2) in individuals with infectious mononucleosis in the metropolitan area of Belém, Brazil, between 2005 and 2016

Abstract Two types of Epstein Barr virus (EBV1/EBV2) have been shown to infect humans. Although their genomes are similar, the regions containing the EBNA genes differ. This study aimed to characterize the EBV genotypes of infectious mononucleosis (IM) cases in the metropolitan region of Belém, Brazil, from 2005 to 2016. A total of 8295 suspected cases with symptoms/signs of IM were investigated by infectious disease physicians at Evandro Chagas Institute, Health Care Service, from January 2005 to December 2016. Out of the total, 1645 (19.8%) samples had positive results for EBV by enzyme immunoassay and 251 (15.3%) were submitted to polymerase chain reaction (PCR) technique, using the EBNA3C region, in order to determine the type of EBV. Biochemical testing involving aspartate aminotransferase, alanine aminotransferase and gamma-glutamyl transferase were also performed. EBV type was identified by PCR in 30.3% (76/251) of individuals; of those, 71.1% (54/76) were classified as EBV1, 17.1% (13/76) as EBV2, and 11.8% (9/76) as EBV1+EBV2. The main symptoms/signs observed with EBV1 infection were cervical lymphadenopathy (64.8%, 35/54), fever (63%, 34/54), headache (20.4%, 11/54), arthralgia (20.4%, 11/54), and exanthema (18.5%, 10/54). EBV2 infection was detected in all but two age groups, with an average age of 24 years. The most common signs/symptoms of EBV2 were fever (76.9%, 10/13), average duration of 18 days, and lymphadenopathy (69.2%, 9/13). In contrast, EBV1+EBV2 coinfections were more frequent in those aged five years or less (20.0%, 2/10). The symptoms of EBV1+EBV2 coinfection included fever (66.7%, 6/9), and cervical lymphadenopathy and headache (33.3%, 3/9) each. The mean values of hepatic enzymes according to type of EBV was significantly different (p<0.05) in those EBV1 infected over 14 years of age. Thus, this pioneering study, using molecular methods, identified the EBV genotypes in 30.3% of the samples, with circulation of EBV1, EBV2, and EBV1+EBV2 co-infection in cases of infectious mononucleosis in the northern region of Brazil.

Genotypes of Epstein-Barr virus (EBV1/EBV2) in individuals with infectious mononucleosis in the metropolitan area of Belém, Brazil, between 2005 and 2016.

Two types of Epstein Barr virus (EBV1/EBV2) have been shown to infect humans. Although their genomes are similar, the regions containing the EBNA genes differ. This study aimed to characterize the EBV genotypes of infectious mononucleosis (IM) cases in the metropolitan region of Belém, Brazil, from 2005 to 2016. A total of 8295 suspected cases with symptoms/signs of IM were investigated by infectious disease physicians at Evandro Chagas Institute, Health Care Service, from January 2005 to December 2016. Out of the total, 1645 (19.8%) samples had positive results for EBV by enzyme immunoassay and 251 (15.3%) were submitted to polymerase chain reaction (PCR) technique, using the EBNA3C region, in order to determine the type of EBV. Biochemical testing involving aspartate aminotransferase, alanine aminotransferase and gamma-glutamyl transferase were also performed. EBV type was identified by PCR in 30.3% (76/251) of individuals; of those, 71.1% (54/76) were classified as EBV1, 17.1% (13/76) as EBV2, and 11.8% (9/76) as EBV1 + EBV2. The main symptoms/signs observed with EBV1 infection were cervical lymphadenopathy (64.8%, 35/54), fever (63%, 34/54), headache (20.4%, 11/54), arthralgia (20.4%, 11/54), and exanthema (18.5%, 10/54). EBV2 infection was detected in all but two age groups, with an average age of 24 years. The most common signs/symptoms of EBV2 were fever (76.9%, 10/13), average duration of 18 days, and lymphadenopathy (69.2%, 9/13). In contrast, EBV1 + EBV2 coinfections were more frequent in those aged five years or less (20.0%, 2/10). The symptoms of EBV1 + EBV2 coinfection included fever (66.7%, 6/9), and cervical lymphadenopathy and headache (33.3%, 3/9) each. The mean values of hepatic enzymes according to type of EBV was significantly different (p < 0.05) in those EBV1 infected over 14 years of age. Thus, this pioneering study, using molecular methods, identified the EBV genotypes in 30.3% of the samples, with circulation of EBV1, EBV2, and EBV1 + EBV2 co-infection in cases of infectious mononucleosis in the northern region of Brazil.

Enterovirus detection and serotyping of fecal material collected from three children living on the outskirts of Belém city, Amazon region, Brazil, during the first 3 years of life (1983-1986).

In the current investigation, fecal material was obtained during a community-based longitudinal study conducted from 1983 to 1986. This study consisted of 71 children aged newborn to 3 years. A total of 216 samples from three of these children were screened by real-time quantitative polymerase chain reaction (RT-qPCR) for the presence of enteroviruses, and positive samples were serotyped by VP1 and VP3 sequencing of the viral genome. Of these, 12 (5.6%) came from symptomatic cases, and the remaining asymptomatic cases were collected fortnightly during the 3 years of study. A positivity of 63.4% (137/216) was obtained by RT-qPCR, with 58.3% (7/12) in relation to the symptomatic group and 63.7% (130/204) in relation to the asymptomatic group. The 137 positive samples were inoculated into the RD, HEp2C, and L20B cell lines, and the cytopathic effect was observed in 37.2% (51/137) samples. It was also possible to identify 40.9% (56/137), between isolated (n = 46) and nonisolated (n = 10). Enterovirus serotype diversity (n = 25) was identified in this study, with the predominant species being B (80.3%), followed by C (16.1%) and A (3.6%). Cases of reinfection by different serotypes were also observed in the three children studied. Analyses involving different age groups of these minors confirmed that the most affected age was between 12 to 24 months, with a prevalence of 77.6% (52/67). The enterovirus (EV) circulated in the 3 years of research, showed peaks in some months, without defined seasonality. This study demonstrated a high circulation and serotype diversity of EV in fecal samples, collected over 30 years ago. This endorsed the evaluation of important points of the epidemiology of these viruses, such as the presence of coinfection and reinfection of the same individual by different circulating serotypes. Understanding the frequency and duration of EV infections is important in determining their association with persistent diarrhea.

Molecular and evolutionary characterization of norovirus GII.17 in the northern region of Brazil.

BACKGROUND: Currently, norovirus (NoV) is associated with one-fifth of all acute gastroenteritis (AGE) cases worldwide. The NoV GII.17_2014 variant has been associated with gastroenteritis outbreaks in several Asian countries, replacing the previously dominant Sydney 2012 variant. There is limited data about circulation of this new strain in Brazil. This study aimed to describe the phylogenetic and evolutionary characteristics of the GII.17_2014 strains in the Northern region of Brazil. METHODS: NoV was detected by enzyme immunoassay (EIA) in 645 stool samples of AGE cases that were reported in Pará and Amazonas states during 2015-2016. All positive samples were tested for NoV GI and GII by reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) and the amplicons were subjected to genome sequencing. The GII.17-positive samples were retested by PCR using different sets of designed primers, which target a highly conserved capsid gene region. Next, the amplicons were sequenced and phylogenetically analyzed using Bayesian inferences. RESULTS: Of the 645 samples tested, 208 (32.2%) tested were positive for NoV by EIA, among which 95 (45.7%) were genotyped. Among the genotyped samples, 12 (12.6%) were characterized as GII.17_2014 with the first case detected in November 2015 (1/30, 3.3%) and the others in 2016 (11/65, 16.9%). All strains found in our study were clustered in clade D (epidemic strain). The uncorrelated log-normal model estimations calculated the rate of evolution for GII-17 strains as 1.95 × 10- 3 (1.28 × 10- 3-2.63 × 10- 3). In total, 36 nucleotide changes were observed after analyzing the VP1 sequence, among which 28 occurred in the P2 region. CONCLUSIONS: These data demonstrate the evolutionary dynamics in NoV GII.17_2014 strains, which indicated high mutation rates with nucleotide substitutions and indels that are related to the elevated levels of antigenic diversity. This partly explains the increase in viral prevalence.

Occurrence of norovirus genogroups I and II in recreational water from four beaches in Belém city, Brazilian Amazon region.

This study aimed to investigate the presence of norovirus (NoV) in recreational waters of four estuarine beaches located in Mosqueiro Island, Belém city, Brazilian Amazon, during two years of monitoring (2012 and 2013). NoV particles were concentrated on filtering membrane by the adsorption-elution method and detected by semi-nested RT-PCR (reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction) and sequencing. NoV positivity was observed in 37.5% (39/104) of the surface water samples, with genogroup GI (69.2%) occurring at a higher frequency than GII (25.7%), with a cocirculation of both genogroups in two samples (5.1%). This virus was detected in all sampling points analyzed, showing the highest detection rate at the Paraíso Beach (46.2%). Statistically, there was a dependence relationship between tide levels and positive detection, with a higher frequency at high tide (46.7%) than at low tide (25%) periods. Months with the highest detection rates (April 2012 and April/May 2013) were preceded by periods of higher precipitation (March 2012 and February/March 2013). Phylogenetic analysis showed the circulation of the old pandemic variant (GII.4-US_95-96) and GI.8. The NoV detection demonstrated viral contamination on the beaches and evidenced the health risk to bathers, mainly through recreational activities such as bathing, and highlighted the importance of including enteric viruses research in the recreational water quality monitoring.

Epidemiological and molecular investigation of norovirus and astrovirus infections in Rio Branco, Acre, Northern Brazil: A retrospective study.

Norovirus (NoV) is a major cause of nonbacterial acute gastroenteritis (AGE) outbreaks worldwide, with infections reported in semiclosed environments, particularly in hospitals and nursing homes. Astrovirus (HAstV) is prevalent worldwide, especially in developing countries. We aimed to determine the prevalence, spatial distribution, and genetic diversity of NoV and HAstV in children under 5 years of age in Rio Branco city, Acre State, Amazon Region, Brazil. Stool samples from children with (n = 240) and without (n = 248) AGE were collected from January to December 2012 from seven neighborhoods. The overall NoV prevalence was 12.3% (60 of 488); representing 15.8% (38 of 240) of the symptomatic samples and 8.9% (22 of 248) of the controls. HAstVs infection was observed in 4.7% (23 of 488) of the samples tested, 6.2% (15 of 240) of AGE cases, and 2.4% (6 of 248) of the controls (plus two without information about feces consistency). Infections were found in all age groups with higher frequency in children less than two years of age, for both viruses. NoV was detected in all neighborhoods, with a higher concentration in the fourth (30%; 18 of 60). NoV nucleotide sequencing performed in 86.7% (52 of 60) of the positive samples showed the circulation of the strains GII.4 (57.7%; 30 of 52), GIIPe/GII.4 (19.2%; 10 of 52), GII.7, GII.Pg/GII.1, and GII.Pc (3.8%; 2 of 52 for each), GII.6 and GII.Pg (1.9%; 1 of 52 for each), and GI.3 (7.7%; 4 of 52). Three GII.4 variants were detected: Den Haag_2006b (n = 1), New Orleans_2009 (n = 1), and Sydney_2012 (n = 14). HAstV types HAstV-1a (81.8%; 9 of 11) and HAstV-2c (18.2%; 2 of 11) were observed in the 47.8% (11 of 23) of characterized samples. This is the first data obtained in Acre State regarding the prevalence of these viruses and provides epidemiological and molecular information for a better understanding of their role among children with and without AGE.

Detection and genotyping of human adenovirus and sapovirus in children with acute gastroenteritis in Belém, Pará, between 1990 and 1992: first detection of GI.7 and GV.2 sapoviruses in Brazil.

INTRODUCTION: Acute gastroenteritis (AGE) is one of the most common causes of morbidity and mortality, especially among children from developing countries. Human adenovirus (HAdV) and sapovirus (SaV) are among the agents that cause AGE. The present study aimed to detect and genotype HAdV and SaV in 172 fecal samples from children with AGE, collected during a surveillance study carried out in a low-income community in Belém, Pará, between 1990 and 1992. METHODS: HAdV was detected by nested PCR, using primers Hex1deg/Hex2deg and NeHex3deg/NeHex4deg. SaV was assayed by reverse transcription PCR (RT-PCR), nested PCR, and quantitative PCR. The nucleotide sequence was determined by direct cycle sequencing. RESULTS: Overall, 43% (74/172) of samples were positive for HAdV, of which 70.3% (52/74) were sequenced and classified as belonging to five different species, mostly A and F. For SaV, positivity was 5.2% (9/172) and genotypes GI.1, GI.7, GII.1, and GV.2 were detected. CONCLUSIONS: The present results reinforce the need for further studies to obtain epidemiological data about the circulation of these viruses in Brazil, especially in the Amazon Region, where data from the early 1990's are scarce. Furthermore, the study describes for the first time the detection of SaV genotypes GI.7 and GV.2 in Brazil, showing that these types circulated in the region more than 25 years ago.

Detection and genotyping of human adenovirus and sapovirus in children with acute gastroenteritis in Belém, Pará, between 1990 and 1992: first detection of GI. 7 and GV. 2 sapoviruses in Brazil

Abstract INTRODUCTION: Acute gastroenteritis (AGE) is one of the most common causes of morbidity and mortality, especially among children from developing countries. Human adenovirus (HAdV) and sapovirus (SaV) are among the agents that cause AGE. The present study aimed to detect and genotype HAdV and SaV in 172 fecal samples from children with AGE, collected during a surveillance study carried out in a low-income community in Belém, Pará, between 1990 and 1992. METHODS: HAdV was detected by nested PCR, using primers Hex1deg/Hex2deg and NeHex3deg/NeHex4deg. SaV was assayed by reverse transcription PCR (RT-PCR), nested PCR, and quantitative PCR. The nucleotide sequence was determined by direct cycle sequencing. RESULTS: Overall, 43% (74/172) of samples were positive for HAdV, of which 70.3% (52/74) were sequenced and classified as belonging to five different species, mostly A and F. For SaV, positivity was 5.2% (9/172) and genotypes GI.1, GI.7, GII.1, and GV.2 were detected. CONCLUSIONS: The present results reinforce the need for further studies to obtain epidemiological data about the circulation of these viruses in Brazil, especially in the Amazon Region, where data from the early 1990's are scarce. Furthermore, the study describes for the first time the detection of SaV genotypes GI.7 and GV.2 in Brazil, showing that these types circulated in the region more than 25 years ago.