Brain-derived neurotrophic factor treatment does not improve functional recovery after hair cell regeneration in the pigeon.

CONCLUSIONS: Brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) supply to the inner ear does not improve the time course or the extent of functional recovery after hair cell regeneration. Specifically it does not improve the residual threshold elevation observed after the completion of spontaneous recovery. OBJECTIVE: The avian inner ear is capable of hair cell regeneration and substantial functional recovery, but residual hearing deficits remain. We investigated whether functional recovery can be improved by intracochlear application of BDNF, which plays an important role in auditory ontogenesis and maintenance during adult life. METHODS: Hair cells in adult pigeons were destroyed by local application of gentamicin. After 3 days either BDNF or control solution was administered to the scala tympani by implanted osmotic minipumps for 8 weeks. Auditory brain stem responses (ABR) to tone pips were used to assess recovery of hearing thresholds in both groups. RESULTS: The application of gentamicin caused a frequency-dependent hearing loss that ranged from 24.8 dB SPL at low frequencies to 66.2 dB SPL at high frequencies. After day 10 substantial recovery was observed, but a significant threshold shift remained. The time course of recovery in the control and BDNF-treated groups was similar, without significant residual threshold differences in any frequency range.

Functional recovery of hearing following ampa-induced reversible disruption of hair cell afferent synapses in the avian inner ear.

Hair cells in the avian inner ear can regenerate after acoustic trauma or ototoxic insult, and significant functional recovery from hearing loss occurs. However, small residual deficits remain, possibly as a result of incomplete reestablishment of the hair cell neural synaptic contacts. The aim of the present study was to determine if intracochlear application of alpha-amino-3-hydroxy-5-methyl-4-isoxazole propionic acid (AMPA), an excitotoxic glutamate agonist, causes reversible disruption of hair cell neural contacts in the bird, and to what extent functional recovery occurs if synaptic contacts are reestablished. Compound action potential (CAP) responses to tone bursts were recorded to determine hearing thresholds during a recovery period of up to 4 months. Subsequently, the response properties of single auditory nerve fibers were analyzed in the same animals. Instillation of AMPA into the perilymph of the scala tympani led to immediate abolition of CAP thresholds. Partial recovery occurred over a period of 2-3 weeks, without further improvement of thresholds thereafter. High-frequency thresholds did not reach control values even after 3-4 months of recovery. Single-ganglion cell response properties, obtained 3-4 months after AMPA treatment, showed elevated thresholds at the fiber's characteristic frequency (CF) for units with CF above 0.3 kHz. Sharpness of tuning (Q(10 dB)) was reduced in units with CF above 0.4 kHz. The spontaneous firing rate was higher in units with CF above 0.18 kHz. The maximum sound-evoked discharge rate was also increased. Transmission electron micrographs of the basilar papilla showed that, following AMPA treatment, the nerve endings went through a sequence of swelling, degeneration and recovery over a period of 3-7 days. The process of neosynaptogenesis was completed 14 days after exposure. The present findings are strong evidence for a role of glutamate or a related excitatory amino acid as the afferent transmitter in the avian inner ear. In addition they show that functional recovery after disruption and regeneration of hair cell neural synapses, without apparent damage to the hair cells, is incomplete.

Functional recovery in the avian ear after hair cell regeneration.

Trauma to the inner ear in birds, due to acoustic overstimulation or ototoxic aminoglycosides, can lead to hair cell loss which is followed by regeneration of new hair cells. These processes are paralleled by hearing loss followed by significant functional recovery. After acoustic trauma, functional recovery is rapid and nearly complete. The early and major part of functional recovery after sound trauma occurs before regenerated hair cells become functional. Even very intense sound trauma causes loss of only a proportion of the hair cell population, mainly so-called short hair cells residing on the abneural mobile part of the avian basilar membrane. Uncoupling of the tectorial membrane from the hair cells during sound overexposure may serve as a protection mechanism. The rapid functional recovery after sound trauma appears not to be associated with regeneration of the lost hair cells, but with repair processes involving the surviving hair cells. Small residual functional deficits after recovery are most likely associated with the missing upper fibrous layer of the tectorial membrane which fails to regenerate after sound trauma. After aminoglycoside trauma, functional recovery is slower and parallels the structural regeneration more closely. Aminoglycosides cause damage to both types of hair cells, starting at the basal (high frequency) part of the basilar papilla. However, functional hearing loss and recovery also occur at lower frequencies, associated with areas of the papilla where hair cells survive. Functional recovery in these low frequency areas is complete, whereas functional recovery in high frequency areas with complete hair cell loss is incomplete, despite regeneration of the hair cells. Permanent residual functional deficits remain. This indicates that in low frequency regions functional recovery after aminoglycosides involves repair of nonlethal injury to hair cells and/or hair cell-neural synapses. In the high frequency regions functional recovery involves regenerated hair cells. The permanent functional deficits after the regeneration process in these areas are most likely associated with functional deficits in the regenerated hair cells or shortcomings in the synaptic reconnections of nerve fibers with the regenerated hair cells. In conclusion, the avian inner ear appears to be much more resistant to trauma than the mammalian ear and possesses a considerable capacity for functional recovery based on repair processes along with its capacity to regenerate hair cells. The functional recovery in areas with regenerated hair cells is considerable but incomplete.

AMPA-type glutamate receptor subunits are expressed in the avian cochlear hair cells and ganglion cells.

The cellular localization of AMPA-type glutamate receptor subunits was examined in the pigeon inner ear using subunit specific polyclonal antibodies (GluR1-4). In the auditory ganglion cell bodies immunoreactivity for the subunits GluR2/3 and GluR4, but not for GluR1 was detected. The hair cells showed diffuse immunoreactivity for GluR4. Additionally, immunostaining for the subunits GluR2/3 and GluR4 was present below the hair cells. These results indicate that the AMPA type glutamate receptors play a role in neurotransmission at the hair cell afferent synapse in the avian auditory system.

Responses of auditory nerve fibers innervating regenerated hair cells after local application of gentamicin at the round window of the cochlea in the pigeon.

Hair cells in the basilar papilla of birds have the capacity to regenerate after injury. There is also functional recovery of hearing after regeneration of the hair cells. The present study was undertaken to determine the effect of local aminoglycoside application on the physiology of auditory nerve fibers innervating regenerated hair cells. Collagen sponges loaded with gentamicin were placed at the round window of the cochlea in adult pigeons. The local application of gentamicin-loaded collagen sponges resulted in total hair cell loss over at least the basal 62% of the basilar papilla. According to the pigeon cochlear place-frequency map (Smolders, Ding-Pfennigdorff and Klinke, Hear. Res. 92 (1995) 151-169), frequencies above 0.3 kHz are represented in this area. Physiological data on single auditory nerve fibers were obtained 14 weeks after gentamicin treatment. The response properties showed the following characteristics when compared to control data: CF thresholds (CF = characteristic frequency) were elevated in units with CF above 0.15 kHz, sharpness of tuning (Q10dB) was reduced in units with CF above 0.38 kHz, low-frequency slopes of the tuning curves were reduced in units with CF above 0.25 kHz, high frequency slopes of the tuning curves were reduced in units with CF above 0.4 kHz, spontaneous firing rate was reduced in units with CF above 0.38 kHz, dynamic range of rate-intensity functions at CF was reduced in units with CF above 0.4 kHz and the slopes of these rate-intensity functions were elevated in units with CF above 0.4 kHz. Maximum discharge rate was the only parameter that remained unchanged in regenerated ears. The results show that the response properties of auditory nerve fibers which innervate areas of the papilla that were previously devoid of hair cells are poorer than the controls, but that action potential generation in the afferent fibers is unaffected. This suggests that despite structural regeneration of the basilar papilla, functional recovery of the auditory periphery is incomplete at the level of the hair cell or the hair cell-afferent synapse.

Hair cell regeneration after local application of gentamicin at the round window of the cochlea in the pigeon.

Hair cells in the basilar papilla of birds have the capacity to regenerate after injury. Methods commonly used to induce cochlear damage are systemic application of ototoxic substances such as aminoglycoside antibiotics or loud sound. Both methods have disadvantages. The systemic application of antibiotics results in damage restricted to the basal 50% of the papilla and has severe side effects on the kidneys. Loud sound damages only small parts of the papilla and is restricted to the short hair cells. The present study was undertaken to determine the effect of local aminoglycoside application on the physiology and morphology of the avian basilar papilla. Collagen sponges loaded with gentamicin were placed at the round window of the cochlea in adult pigeons. The time course of hearing thresholds was determined from auditory brain stem responses elicited with pure tone bursts within a frequency range of 0.35-5.565 kHz. The condition of the basilar papilla was determined from scanning electron micrographs. Five days after application of the collagen sponges loaded with gentamicin severe hearing loss, except for the lowest frequency tested, was observed. Only at the apical 20% of the basilar papilla hair cells were left intact, all other hair cells were missing or damaged. At all frequencies there was little functional recovery until day 13 after implantation. At frequencies above 1 kHz functional recovery occurred at a rate of up to 4 dB/day until day 21, beyond that day recovery continued at a rate below 1 dB/day until day 48 at the 5.6 kHz. Below 1 kHz recovery occurred up to day 22, the recovery rate was below 2 dB/day. A residual hearing loss of about 15-25 dB remained at all frequencies, except for the lowest frequency tested. At day 20 new hair cells were seen on the basilar papilla. At day 48 the hair cells appeared to have recovered fully, except for the orientation of the hair cell bundles. The advantage of the local application of the aminoglycoside drug over systemic application is that it damages almost all hair cells in the basilar papilla and it has no toxic side effects. The damage is more extensive than with systemic application.

Hair cell loss and regeneration after severe acoustic overstimulation in the adult pigeon.

The extent of hair cell regeneration following acoustic overstimulation severe enough to destroy tall hair cells, was determined in adult pigeons. BrdU (5-bromo-2'-deoxyuridine) was used as a proliferation marker. Recovery of hearing thresholds in each individual animal was measured over a period of up to 16 weeks after trauma. In ears with loss of both short and tall hair cells, little or no functional recovery occurred. In ears with less damage, where significant functional recovery did occur, there were always a few rows of surviving hair cells left at the neural edge of the basilar papilla. In the region of hair cell loss, numerous BrdU labeled cells were found. However, only a small minority of these cells were regenerated hair cells, the majority being monolayer cells. Irrespective of the extent of the region of hair cell loss, regenerated hair cells were observed predominantly in a narrow strip at the transition from the abneural area of total hair cell loss and the neural area of hair cell survival. With increasing damage this strip moved progressively towards the neural edge of the papilla. No regeneration of hair cells was observed in the abneural region of total hair cell loss, even up to 16 weeks after trauma. The results indicate that there is a gradient in the destructive effect of loud sound across the width of the basilar papilla, from most detrimental at the abneural edge to least detrimental at the neural edge. Both tall and short hair cells can regenerate after sound trauma. Whether they do regenerate or not depends on the degree of damage to the area of the papilla where they normally reside. Regeneration of new hair cells occurs only in a narrow longitudinal band, which moves from abneural into the neural direction with increasing damage. In the area neural to this band, hair cells survive the overstimulation. In the area abneural to this band, sound damage is so severe, that no regeneration of hair cells occurs. As a consequence morphological and functional deficits persist.

Discharge properties of pigeon single auditory nerve fibers after recovery from severe acoustic trauma.

The time course of recovery of compound action potential (CAP) thresholds was observed in individual adult pigeons after severe acoustic trauma. Each bird had electrodes implanted on the round window of both ears. One ear was exposed to a tone of 0.7 kHz at 136-142 dB SPL for 1 hr under general anesthesia. Recovery of CAP audiograms was monitored twice a week after trauma. Single unit recordings from auditory nerve fibers were made after 3 weeks and after 4 or more months of the exposure. The CAP was abolished immediately after overstimulation in all animals. Based on the temporal patterns of functional recovery of the CAP three groups of animals were identified. The first group was characterized by fast functional recovery starting immediately after trauma followed by a return to pre-exposure values within 3 weeks. In the second group, slow functional recovery of threshold started 1-2 weeks after trauma followed by a return to pre-exposure values by 4-5 weeks. A mean residual hearing loss of 26.3 dB at 2 kHz remained. The third group consisted of animals that did not recover after trauma. Three weeks after the exposure, tuning curves of single auditory nerve fibers were very broad and sometimes irregular in shape. Their thresholds hovered around 120 dB SPL. Spontaneous firing rate and driven rate were much reduced. Four or more months after exposure, the thresholds and sharpness of tuning of many single units were almost completely recovered. Spontaneous firing rate and driven rate were comparable to those of control animals. In the slow recovery group neuronal tuning properties showed less recovery, especially at frequencies above the exposure frequency. Thresholds and sharpness of tuning were normal at frequencies below the exposure frequency, but were much poorer at frequencies above the exposure. Spontaneous firing rate was much reduced in fibers with high characteristic frequencies. In fast recovering animals, the papilla was repopulated with hair cells after 4 months. In slow recovering animals, short (abneural) hair cells were still missing over large parts of the papilla after 4 months of recovery. Residual short (abneural) hair cell loss was largest at two areas, one more basal and the other more apical to the characteristic place of the traumatizing frequency. The results show that, in adult birds, functional recovery from severe damage to both short (abneural) and tall (neural) hair cells occurs. However, the onset of recovery is delayed and the time course is slower than after destruction of short (abneural) hair cells alone. Also, recovery is incomplete, both functionally and morphologically. There is residual permanent hearing loss, and regeneration of short (abneural) hair cells is incomplete.

Loss of auditory function in transgenic Mpv17-deficient mice.

The transgenic mouse strain Mpv17 develops severe morphological degeneration of the inner ear and nephrotic syndrome at a young age (Meyer zum Gottesberge et al., 1996; Weiher et al., 1990). The audiograms (1-32 kHz) of Mpv17-negative mice were determined from auditory brain stem responses in young (2 months) and old (7 months) animals. Audiograms of age-matched wild-type mice with the same genetic background, but wild-type at the Mpv17 locus, were also determined. Furthermore, young Mpv17-negative mice that carried a human Mpv17 homologue gene were studied. NMRI mice served as a reference for normal hearing. Mpv17-negative mice suffer from severe sensorineural hearing loss as early as 2 months after birth. In the old Mpv17-negative mice no responses could be elicited at all. The 2 month old wild-type mice had normal audiograms, at 7 months only high threshold responses were seen. The poor audiograms of the Mpv17-negative mice are assumed to be the functional correlate of the morphological degeneration of the cochlea described earlier (Meyer zum Gottesberge et al., 1996). The finding that 2 out of 4 Mpv17-negative mice with the human Mpv17 gene had normal audiograms, shows that the gene inactivation can be functionally compensated by the human Mpv17 gene product.

Regeneration after tall hair cell damage following severe acoustic trauma in adult pigeons: correlation between cochlear morphology, compound action potential responses and single fiber properties in single animals.

The time course of recovery of compound action potential (CAP) thresholds was observed in individual adult pigeons after severe acoustic trauma. Pigeons were overstimulated with a tone of 0.7 kHz and 136-142 dB SPL presented to one ear for 1 h under general anesthesia. Recovery of CAP audiograms was monitored at regular intervals after trauma. A new semi-stereotaxic approach to the peripheral part of the auditory nerve was developed. This permitted activity from single auditory nerve fibers to be recorded over a wide range of characteristic frequencies (CFs), including high CFs, without having to open the inner ear. Single unit recordings were made after three weeks and after 4 or more months of recovery. The time course of recovery, the single unit properties, and the morphological status of the basilar papilla were correlated. The CAP was abolished in all animals after overstimulation. Three groups of animals were identified according to the functional recovery of the CAP thresholds recorded at regular intervals with implanted electrodes: Group 1: Fast functional recovery starting immediately after trauma, followed by recovery to pre-exposure values within 3 weeks. Group 2: Slow functional recovery of threshold starting 1-2 weeks after trauma and ending 4-5 weeks after trauma. A mean residual hearing loss of 26.3 dB at 2 kHz remained. Group 3: No recovery of CAP thresholds up to 8 months after trauma. Three weeks after trauma, very few responsive neurons were found in groups 2 and 3. Tuning curves were very broad and sometimes irregular in shape. Thresholds were very high, around 120 dB SPL. Spontaneous firing rate was much reduced, especially in neurons with high CFs. After 4 or more months of recovery, the response properties of single units in group 1 had only partially recovered. Thresholds and sharpness of tuning of many single units were normal: however, in general they were still poorer than in control animals. Spontaneous firing rate was comparable to control animals. Neurons from animals in group 2 showed less recovery, especially at frequencies above the exposure frequency. Thresholds and sharpness of tuning were normal at frequencies below the exposure frequency, but were much poorer at frequencies above the exposure. Spontaneous firing rate was much reduced in fibers with high CFs. The basilar papilla in animals without recovery showed total loss of the sensory epithelium. The basal lamina of the basilar membrane, however, remained intact and was covered with cuboidal cells. In fast recovering animals, the papilla was repopulated with hair cells after 4 months. In slow recovering animals, short (abneural) hair cells were still missing over large parts of the papilla after 4 months of recovery. Residual short (abneural) hair cell loss was largest at two areas, one more basal and the other more apical to the characteristic place of the traumatizing frequency. The results show that functional recovery from severe damage to both short (abneural) and tall (neural) hair cells occurs in adult birds. However, the onset of recovery is delayed and the time course is slower than after destruction of short (abneural) hair cells alone. Furthermore recovery is incomplete, both functionally and morphologically. There are residual permanent hearing losses and regeneration of short (abneural) hair cells is incomplete.

A functional map of the pigeon basilar papilla: correlation of the properties of single auditory nerve fibres and their peripheral origin.

The purpose of the investigation was to correlate the functional properties of primary auditory fibres with the location of appertaining receptor cells in the avian basilar papilla. The functional properties of 425 single afferent fibres from the auditory nerve of adult pigeons were measured. The peripheral innervation site of 39 fibres was identified by intracellular labelling and correlated with the fibre's functional properties. Mean spontaneous firing rate (SR, 0.1-250/s) was distributed monomodally (mean: 91 +/- 47/s) but not normally. Characteristic frequencies (CFs) were in the range of 0.02-4 kHz. SR, threshold at CF (4-76 dB SPL) and sharpness of tuning (Q10 dB, 0.1-8.8) varied systematically with CF. For a given CF there was a strong correlation of threshold and Q10 dB and of threshold and SR. Labelled fibres innervated different hair cell types over 93% of the length and 97% of the width of the basilar papilla. The majority of fibres innervated hair cells located between 30 and 70% distance from the apex and 0 and 30% distance from the neural edge of the papilla. CFs are mapped tonotopically from high at the base to low at the apex of the papilla, with a mean mapping constant of 0.63 +/- 0.05 mm/octave (in vivo). The highest CF at the base extrapolates to 5.98 +/- 1.17 kHz. The lowest CF mapped at the apex is 0.021 kHz. From the data, together with data from mechanical measurements (Gummer et al., 1987), a frequency-place function of the pigeon papilla was calculated. Transverse gradients of threshold at CF and of Q10 dB were observed across the width of the papilla. Thresholds were lowest and sharpness of tuning was highest above the neural limbus at a distance of 23% from the neural edge of the papilla. Hair cells in this sensitive strip are the tallest and narrowest ones across the width of the papilla. They are packed most densely and receive the largest number of afferent fibres. Fibres innervating (mostly short) hair cells on the free basilar membrane were spontaneously active and responsive to sound. Their Q10 dB was less than average but their sensitivity and SR were comparable to the mean population values. It is concluded that functional properties change gradually not only along the length but also across the width of the pigeon basilar papilla. The results support the idea that sharp frequency tuning of avian primary auditory fibres involves tuning mechanisms supplementary to the tuning of the free part of the basilar membrane.

Performance of the avian inner ear.

In spite of morphological similarities, the avian inner ear has apparently developed mechanisms of sound transduction that differ from the mammalian solution. This paper is a compilation of the present knowledge.

Cochlear potentials and auditory evoked potentials in the caiman (Caiman crocodilus (L.)).

Brain-stem auditory evoked potentials (BAEPs) and round window compound action potentials (CAPs) in response to rarefaction and condensation clicks were recorded from anaesthetized and artificially respired caiman. The recorded wave forms were substantially different from the brain-stem and round window potentials recorded in mammals, including man. In particular, wave latencies were much longer than in mammals. Wave amplitudes increased and latencies decreased significantly and reversibly with increases in stimulus intensity and body temperature. The latencies of the first positive wave (P1) in the BAEP and the first negative wave (N1) in the CAP are correlated and co-vary with stimulus level and body temperature. BAEP P1 thus represents the response of the auditory nerve. The cochlear microphonic (CM) latency in caiman is unaffected by stimulus intensity and by cooling of the animal.

Mechanics of a single-ossicle ear: I. The extra-stapedius of the pigeon.

The motion of the conical peak of the tympanic membrane (TM) at the tip of the extra-stapedius (ES) and of the columella footplate (CFP) were measured in the pigeon using the Mössbauer technique. The dimensions of middle-ear structures were measured in some of the experimental animals. The averaged velocity response at the ES for frequencies of 0.25-2.378 kHz was that of a second order, mass and stiffness controlled, resonant system with resonant frequency of 1.2 kHz and Q3 dB of 1.2. The mean velocity amplitude at resonance was 3.7 mms-1 at 100 dB SPL, which is approximately equal to the theoretical value of 3.5 mms-1 required for maximum energy transfer from a uniform plane acoustic wavefront in air. For the frequency regions 0.125-0.25 kHz and 2.378-5.657 kHz, the mean amplitude slopes for the velocity at the ES were 2 dB oct-1 and -3 dB oct-1, respectively. Above 5.657 kHz there was considerable inter-animal variation in the ES velocity responses. The direction of motion at the ES was frequency dependent above 1 kHz. For frequencies up to 1 kHz the ratio of CFP to ES velocity was independent of frequency; the mechanical lever ratio was 2.7, which was attributed to the geometry of the middle ear. At these frequencies the total transformer ratio for the middle ear, expressing the ratio of fluid pressure at the CFP to sound pressure at the ES, was estimated to be 35 dB.

Mechanics of a single-ossicle ear: II. The columella footplate of the pigeon.

The motion of the columella footplate (CFP) was measured in the pigeon using the Mössbauer technique. At the upper frequency limit of the cochlea the measured CFP response exhibited anti-resonant phenomena. These high-frequency responses were dependent on the orientation of the radiation detector, in a way which could not be explained by the cosine effect. The dependence of the recorded phase response on the measurement axis implies an additional vibration mode, which was out of temporal phase and non-colinear with the presumed translational vibration mode. The anti-resonant phenomena were not observed when the cochlear labyrinth was extirpated, thus excluding an explanation in terms of extraneous vibrations in the experimental apparatus or of loading by the Mössbauer source. Intra-cochlear reflection is proposed as the origin of the interference mode.

Basilar membrane motion in the pigeon measured with the Mössbauer technique.

Vibration measurements were made of the basilar membrane (BM), limbi and columella footplate (CFP) of pigeon using the Mössbauer technique. Recordings were located at 0.23-1.33 mm from the basal end of the BM. The existence of a travelling wave mode, propagating from base to apex, was established for papillae in apparently good physiological condition. For these papillae the characteristic frequency (CF) of the BM isovelocity (0.08 mm X s-1) response was an exponential function of distance with a frequency mapping constant of 0.91 +/- 0.10 mm (equivalent to 0.63 +/- 0.07 mm X oct-1); BM CF at the base was 5.95 +/- 0.65 kHz. Travelling wave motion was not demonstrated for papillae in poor physiological condition; tonotopy of BM CF was still evident, although the correlation with distance was less (1.08 +/- 0.30 mm X oct-1; 4.35 +/- 0.73 kHz at the base). BM motion was linear and the isovelocity responses were less sensitive and less sharp than single unit threshold tuning curves: for papillae in good physiological condition the SPL at BM CF at 0.08 mm X s-1 was 51 +/- 6 dB SPL; Q10 dB was 1.24 +/- 0.38; high- and low-frequency slopes were 20 +/- 6 dB X oct-1 and -14 +/- 4 dB X oct-1, respectively. The response of the BM relative to the CFP for papillae in good physiological condition was reminiscent of a second order resonant system with damping constant of 0.33 +/- 0.06 and group delay at BM CF of 0.89 +/- 0.36 periods.

Synchronized responses of primary auditory fibre-populations in Caiman crocodilus (L.) to single tones and clicks.

Measurements of the responses to tones and clicks were made from single primary auditory fibres of the caiman. The distribution of the amplitude and phase of the fundamental component of the response rate modulation over the best frequencies of the fibres is comparable to that reported in the cat, despite the fact that the basilar membrane in caiman is only 4.5 mm long. However, much higher intensities are needed in the caiman (75-85 dB SPL) than reported in the cat (20 dB SPL) to obtain systematic distributions of the phase of the responses, probably due to the larger scatter of the phase responses in the caiman. The slopes of the phase distributions are very similar to those in cat. Single unit phase responses as a function of stimulus frequency at 85 dB SPL can be approximated by one, or in fibres with low best frequency, two straight lines. At lower intensities the deviation of the phase-frequency responses from a straight line increases as the group delay at the best frequency becomes larger. The shortest latencies of click responses are obtained with rarefaction clicks. Group delay estimates obtained from the responses to clicks and from the straight line approximations of the phase-frequency responses are related in a way expected for linear filter systems and accurately predict the measured distributions of the phase of the responses over the neural best frequency. The obtained group delays and click latencies in the caiman are very similar to those reported by other workers in the cat, the squirrel monkey and the treefrog, despite large morphological and probably functional differences of their inner ears. The click latencies are also very similar to those in the pigeon. The results are consistent with the existence of a mechanical travelling wave reported previously on the basilar membrane of the caiman, but at the same stimulus level the phase characteristic of the present single unit responses is steeper and the wave length estimates from the neural population phase distributions are shorter than those observed directly in the motion of the basilar membrane. Since the neural responses are an indirect estimate of the basilar membrane motion it cannot be decided whether the difference between neural and mechanical data is due to deterioration of the basilar membrane responses during the direct measurements or whether the basilar membrane response is sharpened by additional tuning mechanisms.

Travelling wave motion along the pigeon basilar membrane.

The basilar membrane (BM) motion in the pigeon was measured using the Mössbauer technique. Tonotopic frequency mapping and travelling wave motion were observed over the basal 35% of the BM. The sensitivity and sharpness of the BM tuning depended on the physiological condition of the cochlea. The observed amplitude responses did not match the frequency threshold tuning curves of single primary auditory fibers.

Mechanics of the basilar membrane in Caiman crocodilus.

Vibration measurements were made at a number of positions near the proximal (basal) end of the basilar membrane, and on the columella footplate, of Caiman crocodilus using a capacitive probe. The measurements established the existence of a mechanical travelling wave in this species. They showed no significant change of mechanical tuning with temperature, and were highly significantly different from previous reports of neural temperature sensitivity (Smolders, J. and Klinke, R. (1984): J. Comp. Physiol. 155, 19-30). Thus the neural sensitivity to temperature change appears not to depend upon basilar membrane mechanics. One interpretation of this is that the basilar membrane passively precedes an active temperature-sensitive filter. It was also found that the limbus supporting the basilar membrane had a measurable, but unturned, vibration and that the effect of draining scala tympani for the measurements was to increase the basilar membrane tuning frequency by a factor of about 1.5.

Neural representation of the acoustic biotope. A comparison of the response of auditory neurons to tonal and natural stimuli in the cat.

Cats were stimulated with tones and with natural sounds selected from the normal acoustic environment of the animal. Neural activity evoked by the natural sounds and tones was recorded in the cochlear nucleus and in the medial geniculate body. The set of biological sounds proved to be effective in influencing neural activity of single cells at both levels in the auditory system. At the level of the cochlear nucleus the response of a neuron evoked by a natural sound stimulus could be understood reasonably well on the basis of the structure of the spectrograms of the natural sounds and the unit's responses to tones. At the level of the medial geniculate body analysis with tones did not provide sufficient information to explain the responses to natural sounds. At this level the use of an ensemble of natural sound stimuli allows the investigation of neural properties, which are not seen by analysis with simple artificial stimuli. Guidelines for the construction of an ensemble of complex natural sound stimuli, based on the ecology and ethology of the animal under investigation are discussed. This stimulus ensemble is defined as the Acoustic Biotope.