Micrometeorological Methods for the Indirect Estimation of Odorous Emissions.

Odors are typically released into the atmosphere as diffuse emissions from area and volume sources, whose detailed quantification in terms of odor emission rate is often hardly achievable by direct source sampling. Indirect methods, involving the use of micrometeorological methods in order to correlate downwind concentrations to the emission rates, are already mentioned in literature, but rarely found in real applications for the quantification of odor emissions. The instrumentation needed for the development of micrometeorological methods has nowadays become accessible in terms of prices and reliability, thus making the implementation of such methods to industrial applications more and more interesting. For this reason, this work aims to provide an overview of micrometeorological methods and investigate their effective applicability to odors, thereby providing a short description of the physics related to such methods and analyzing the relevant scientific literature. The theoretical basis of these methods is presented, and their advantages and disadvantages are discussed. Moreover, their applicability to the estimation of odor emissions is discussed by providing some suggestions about the suitable ways to evaluate the most critical parameters needed for the calculation of the odor emission rate.

A nationwide study of air pollution from particulate matter and daily hospitalizations for respiratory diseases in Italy.

BACKGROUND/AIM: The relationship between air pollution and respiratory morbidity has been widely addressed in urban and metropolitan areas but little is known about the effects in non-urban settings. Our aim was to assess the short-term effects of PM10 and PM2.5 on respiratory admissions in the whole country of Italy during 2006-2015. METHODS: We estimated daily PM concentrations at the municipality level using satellite data and spatiotemporal predictors. We collected daily counts of respiratory hospital admissions for each Italian municipality. We considered five different outcomes: all respiratory diseases, asthma, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), lower and upper respiratory tract infections (LRTI and URTI). Meta-analysis of province-specific estimates obtained by time-series models, adjusting for temperature, humidity and other confounders, was applied to extrapolate national estimates for each outcome. At last, we tested for effect modification by sex, age, period, and urbanization score. Analyses for PM2.5 were restricted to 2013-2015 cause the goodness of fit of exposure estimation. RESULTS: A total of 4,154,887 respiratory admission were registered during 2006-2015, of which 29% for LRTI, 12% for COPD, 6% for URTI, and 3% for asthma. Daily mean PM10 and PM2.5 concentrations over the study period were 23.3 and 17 µg/m3, respectively. For each 10 µg/m3 increases in PM10 and PM2.5 at lag 0-5 days, we found excess risks of total respiratory diseases equal to 1.20% (95% confidence intervals, 0.92, 1.49) and 1.22% (0.76, 1.68), respectively. The effects for the specific diseases were similar, with the strongest ones for asthma and COPD. Higher effects were found in the elderly and in less urbanized areas. CONCLUSIONS: Short-term exposure to PM is harmful for the respiratory system throughout an entire country, especially in elderly patients. Strong effects can be found also in less urbanized areas.

Long-term exposure to air pollutants from multiple sources and mortality in an industrial area: a cohort study.

BACKGROUND AND AIMS: Residents near industrial areas are exposed to several toxins from various sources and the assessment of the health effects is difficult. The area of Civitavecchia (Italy) has several sources of environmental contamination with potential health effects. We evaluated the association between exposure to pollutants from multiple sources and mortality in a cohort of people living in the area. METHODS: All residents of the area in 1996 were enrolled (from municipal registers) and followed until 2013. Long-term exposures to emissions from industrial sources (PM10) and traffic (NOx) at the residential addresses were assessed using a dispersion model. Residence close to the harbour was also considered. Cox survival analysis was conducted including a linear term for industrial PM10 and NOx exposure and a dichotomous variable to indicate residence within 500 m of the harbour. Age, sex, calendar period, occupation and area-based socioeconomic position (SEP) were considered (HRs, 95% CI). RESULTS: 71 362 people were enrolled (52% female, 43% low SEP) and 14 844 died during the follow-up. We found an association between industrial PM10 and mortality from non-accidental causes (HR=1.06, 95% CI 1.01 to 1.12), all cancers (HR=1.11, 95% CI 1.01 to 1.21) and cardiac diseases (HR=1.12, 95% CI 1.01 to 1.23). We also found an association between NOx exposure from traffic and mortality from all cancers (HR=1.13, 95% CI 1.01 to 1.26) and neurological diseases (HR=1.50, 95% CI 1.01 to 2.20). Living near the harbour was associated with higher mortality from lung cancer (HR=1.31, 95% CI 1.04 to 1.66) and neurological diseases (HR=1.51, 95% CI 1.05 to 2.18). CONCLUSIONS: Estimated exposures to different pollution sources in this area were independently associated with several mortality outcomes while adjusting for occupation and socioeconomic status.

Morbidity and mortality of people who live close to municipal waste landfills: a multisite cohort study.

BACKGROUND: The evidence on the health effects related to residing close to landfills is controversial. Nine landfills for municipal waste have been operating in the Lazio region (Central Italy) for several decades. We evaluated the potential health effects associated with contamination from landfills using the estimated concentration of hydrogen sulphide (H2S) as exposure. METHODS: A cohort of residents within 5 km of landfills was enrolled (subjects resident on 1 January 1996 and those who subsequently moved into the areas until 2008) and followed for mortality and hospitalizations until 31 December 2012. Assessment of exposure to the landfill (H2S as a tracer) was performed for each subject at enrolment, using a Lagrangian dispersion model. Information on several confounders was available (gender, age, socioeconomic position, outdoor PM10 concentration, and distance from busy roads and industries). Cox regression analysis was performed [Hazard Ratios (HRs), 95% confidence intervals (CIs)]. RESULTS: The cohort included 242 409 individuals. H2S exposure was associated with mortality from lung cancer and respiratory diseases (e.g. HR for increment of 1 ng/m(3) H2S: 1.10, 95% CI 1.02-1.19; HR 1.09, 95% CI 1.00-1.19, respectively). There were also associations between H2S and hospitalization for respiratory diseases (HR = 1.02, 95% CI 1.00-1.03), especially acute respiratory infections among children (0-14 years) (HR = 1.06, 95% CI 1.02-1.11). CONCLUSIONS: Exposure to H2S, a tracer of airborne contamination from landfills, was associated with lung cancer mortality as well as with mortality and morbidity for respiratory diseases. The link with respiratory disease is plausible and coherent with previous studies, whereas the association with lung cancer deserves confirmation.

Mortality and morbidity in a population exposed to multiple sources of air pollution: A retrospective cohort study using air dispersion models.

BACKGROUND AND AIMS: A landfill, an incinerator, and a refinery plant have been operating since the early 1960s in a contaminated site located in the suburb of Rome (Italy). To evaluate their potential health effects, a population-based retrospective cohort study was conducted using dispersion modeling for exposure assessment. METHODS: A fixed cohort was enrolled in the Rome Longitudinal Study in 2001, mortality and hospitalizations were followed-up until 2010. Exposure assessments to the landfill (H2S), the incinerator (PM10), and the refinery plant (SOX) were performed for each subject using a Lagrangian dispersion model. Individual and small-area variables were available (including exposures levels to NO2 from traffic and diesel trucks). Cox regression analysis was performed (hazard ratios, HRs, 95% CI) using linear terms for the exposures (5th-95th percentiles difference). Single and bi-pollutant models were run. RESULTS: The cohort included 85,559 individuals. The estimated annual average exposures levels were correlated. H2S from the landfill was associated with cardiovascular hospital admissions in both genders (HR 1.04 95% CI 1.00-1.09 in women); PM10 from the incinerator was associated with pancreatic cancer mortality in both genders (HR 1.40 95% CI 1.03-1.90 in men, HR 1.47 95% CI 1.12-1.93 in women) and with breast morbidity in women (HR 1.13 95% CI 1.00-1.27). SOx from the refinery was associated with laryngeal cancer mortality in women (HR 4.99 95% CI 1.64-15.9) and respiratory hospital admissions (HR 1.13 95% CI 1.01-1.27). CONCLUSIONS: We found an association of the pollution sources with some cancer forms and cardio-respiratory diseases. Although there was a high correlation between the estimated exposures, an indication of specific effects from the different sources emerged.

[Morbidity in a population living close to urban waste incinerator plants in Lazio Region (Central Italy): a retrospective cohort study using a before-after design]. / Stato di salute della popolazione residente nei pressi dei termovalorizzatori del Lazio: uno studio di coorte retrospettivo con approccio pre-post.

BACKGROUND: the body of evidence on health effects of residential exposure to urban waste incinerators suggests association with reproductive outcomes and some cancers, but the overall evidence is still limited. OBJECTIVES: we evaluated the impact of two incinerators on hospital admissions for respiratory and cardiovascular diseases in a cohort of people living nearby two incineration plants in Lazio Region (Central Italy) using a before-and-after design. METHODS: the study area was defined as the 7-km radius around the incinerators. People who were resident in the area from 1996 to 2008 were enrolled in a retrospective longitudinal study. All addresses were geocoded. A Lagrangian dispersion model (SPRAY) for PM10 (ng/m³) was used for incinerators exposure assessment. Average annual concentration of background PM10 (µg/m³) was estimated on a regional basis by means of RAMS and FARM models. Both PM10 exposures were estimated at the residential address. All subjects were followed for hospital admissions in the period before (1996-2002) and after (2003-2008) the activation of the plants. The association between exposure to emissions from incinerators and hospitalizations in the two periods was estimated using the multivariate Cox model (for repeated events), adjusting for age, area-level socioeconomic status, distance from industries, traffic roads and highways. An interaction term between the period of follow-up (before or after the activation of the plants) and the exposure levels was used to test the effect of the incinerators. RESULTS: 47,192 subjects resident in the study area were enrolled. No clear association between pollution exposure from incinerators and cause-specific morbidity of residents in highest concentration areas was found when compared to the reference group. However, an effect of PM10 on respiratory diseases and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease was suggested. The effect was due to excesses of hospitalizations for the same causes among men living in highest exposure areas in respect to the reference group (hazard ratio - HR: 1.26; 95%CI 0.99-1.60, and HR: 1.86; 95%CI 1.04-3.33, respectively). There were associations between exposure to background pollution from other sources and hospitalizations for diseases of the circulatory system (HR: 1.08; 95%CI 1.03-1.13) and respiratory diseases (HR: 1.07; 95%CI 1.02-1.11) (for a unitary increment of PM10, µg/m³). CONCLUSIONS: living in areas with high PM10 levels due to incinerators was associated with increased morbidity levels for respiratory disorders among men. The study area is critical from an environmental point of view, hence an epidemiological surveillance is recommended.

[Air pollution in an urban area nearby the Rome-Ciampino city airport]. / Inquinamento atmosferico in un'area urbana limitrofa all'aeroporto di Roma-Ciampino.

OBJECTIVES: to assess air pollution spatial and temporal variability in the urban area nearby the Ciampino International Airport (Rome) and to investigate the airport-related emissions contribute. DESIGN AND SETTING: the study domain was a 64 km2 area around the airport. Two fifteen-day monitoring campaigns (late spring, winter) were carried out. Results were evaluated using several runs outputs of an airport-related sources Lagrangian particle model and a photochemical model (the Flexible Air quality Regional Model, FARM). MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: both standard and high time resolution air pollutant concentrations measurements: CO, NO, NO2, C6H6, mass and number concentration of several PM fractions. 46 fixed points (spread over the study area) of NO2 and volatile organic compounds concentrations (fifteen days averages); deterministic models outputs. RESULTS: standard time resolution measurements, as well as model outputs, showed the airport contribution to air pollution levels being little compared to the main source in the area (i.e. vehicular traffic). However, using high time resolution measurements, peaks of particles associated with aircraft takeoff (total number concentration and soot mass concentration), and landing (coarse mass concentration) were observed, when the site measurement was downwind to the runway. CONCLUSIONS: the frequently observed transient spikes associated with aircraft movements could lead to a not negligible contribute to ultrafine, soot and coarse particles exposure of people living around the airport. Such contribute and its spatial and temporal variability should be investigated when assessing the airports air quality impact.

[Residential cohort approach in industrial contaminated sites: the ERAS Lazio project]. / Lo studio di coorte di popolazione in aree a forte pressione ambientale: il programma ERAS Lazio.

The population-based cohort study is the best design for assessing the possible health effects resulting fromliving in contaminated sites. The ERAS (Epidemiology,Waste disposal, Environment and Health) Project was established to study the health of people living in close proximity to urban solid waste treatment (RU) plants in Lazio. It was conducted using an integrated approach, which consisted in studying mortality and hospital discharges of residential cohorts surrounding urban waste treatment plants. The level of exposure of each address was assigned using pollution dispersion models and studying the effects on mortality and hospital discharges. Further studies were conducted on residents of areas adjacent to waste disposal sites (includingMalagrotta in Rome), incinerators andmechanical biological treatment plants. The final version of the ERAS Report is available at www.eraslazio.it. The residential cohort approach and the combination of environmental and health-related information proved invaluable in the assessment of the health impact of solid waste treatment in Lazio.

Long-term exposure to urban air pollution and mortality in a cohort of more than a million adults in Rome.

BACKGROUND: Few European studies have investigated the effects of long-term exposure to both fine particulate matter (≤ 2.5 µm; PM2.5) and nitrogen dioxide (NO2) on mortality. OBJECTIVES: We studied the association of exposure to NO2, PM2.5, and traffic indicators on cause-specific mortality to evaluate the form of the concentration-response relationship. METHODS: We analyzed a population-based cohort enrolled at the 2001 Italian census with 9 years of follow-up. We selected all 1,265,058 subjects ≥ 30 years of age who had been living in Rome for at least 5 years at baseline. Residential exposures included annual NO2 (from a land use regression model) and annual PM2.5 (from a Eulerian dispersion model), as well as distance to roads with > 10,000 vehicles/day and traffic intensity. We used Cox regression models to estimate associations with cause-specific mortality adjusted for individual (sex, age, place of birth, residential history, marital status, education, occupation) and area (socioeconomic status, clustering) characteristics. RESULTS: Long-term exposures to both NO2 and PM2.5 were associated with an increase in nonaccidental mortality [hazard ratio (HR) = 1.03 (95% CI: 1.02, 1.03) per 10-µg/m3 NO2; HR = 1.04 (95% CI: 1.03, 1.05) per 10-µg/m3 PM2.5]. The strongest association was found for ischemic heart diseases (IHD) [HR = 1.10 (95% CI: 1.06, 1.13) per 10-µg/m3 PM2.5], followed by cardiovascular diseases and lung cancer. The only association showing some deviation from linearity was that between NO2 and IHD. In a bi-pollutant model, the estimated effect of NO2 on mortality was independent of PM2.5. CONCLUSIONS: This large study strongly supports an effect of long-term exposure to NO2 and PM2.5 on mortality, especially from cardiovascular causes. The results are relevant for the next European policy decisions regarding air quality.