Apparatus for skidding sensitivity testing of energetic materials.

A remote-operated apparatus for testing the detonation sensitivity of energetic materials is detailed. Using an air ram and rotating disk, the normal force and transverse velocity of the impact plane are controlled independently, enabling the exploration of varying impact conditions over a wide parameter space. A microcontroller local to the apparatus is used to automate apparatus operation and ensure temporal alignment of the impacting ram head with the rotating disk. Calculation of the firing parameters and issuing of operational commands are handled by a remote computer and relayed to the local microcontroller for execution at the hardware level. Impact forces are taken from fast strain measurements obtained from gauges incorporated into the ram head. Infrared imaging of explosive samples provides insight into the peak thermal temperatures experienced at the sample surface during the impact event.

Design, synthesis, and biological evaluation of aryl piperazines with potential as antidiabetic agents via the stimulation of glucose uptake and inhibition of NADH:ubiquinone oxidoreductase.

The management of blood glucose levels and the avoidance of diabetic hyperglycemia are common objectives of many therapies in the treatment of diabetes. An aryl piperazine compound 3a (RTC1) has been described as a promoter of glucose uptake, in part through a cellular mechanism that involves inhibition of NADH:ubiquinone oxidoreductase. We report herein the synthesis of 41 derivatives of 3a (RTC1) and a systematic structure-activity-relationship study where a number of compounds were shown to effectively stimulate glucose uptake in vitro and inhibit NADH:ubiquinone oxidoreductase. The hit compound 3a (RTC1) remained the most efficacious with a 2.57 fold increase in glucose uptake compared to vehicle control and micromolar inhibition of NADH:ubiquinone oxidoreductase (IC50 = 27 µM). In vitro DMPK and in vivo PK studies are also described, where results suggest that 3a (RTC1) would not be expected to provoke adverse drug-drug interactions, yet be readily metabolised, avoid rapid excretion, with a short half-life, and have good tissue distribution. The overall results indicate that aryl piperazines, and 3a (RTC1) in particular, have potential as effective agents for the treatment of diabetes.

Subterahertz Photonic Crystal Klystron Amplifier.

This Letter reports the successful experimental demonstration of amplification of subterahertz radiation in a klystron with photonic crystal cavities. The klystron has six cavities, with each cavity having a series of oversized photonic crystal cells made up of a 5×3 array of square posts. The center post is removed from each cell to form a highly oversized (0.8 mm∼λ/4) beam tunnel, with power coupling from cell to cell through the tunnel. The pulsed electron beam is operated at 23.5 kV, 330 mA in a 0.5 T solenoidal field. At 93.7 GHz, a small-signal gain of 26 dB and a saturated output power of 30 W are obtained. Experimental results are in very good agreement with the predictions of a particle-in-cell code. The successful achievement of high gain operation of a photonic crystal klystron amplifier is promising for the future extension of klystron operation well into the terahertz frequency region.

Endoscopic transsphenoidal drainage of an aggressive petrous apex cholesterol granuloma: unusual complications and lessons learnt.

OBJECTIVES: This case report describes the endoscopic transsphenoidal management of a cholesterol granuloma situated in a technically challenging part of the petrous apex, and the associated peri- and post-operative complications that arose. The literature on diagnosis and management of petrous apex cholesterol granulomas is reviewed. METHOD AND RESULTS: Surgical intervention was attempted on three occasions, each time via an endoscopic, transsphenoidal approach with image guidance. The procedure was abandoned on the first occasion as there was a significant risk to the carotid artery; only a small drainage ostium was created because of the proximity of the carotid artery. The second attempt, complicated by copious bleeding from the clival venous plexus, was arrested prematurely. Successful drainage was achieved at the third attempt, but recovery was complicated by tension pneumocephalus. CONCLUSION: The transnasal route is less invasive than a lateral labyrinthine or cochlear approach, and spares cochlear and vestibular function. However, this approach is not without risk. It is important to consider the natural anatomical variance of vasculature when planning surgical intervention for a lesion situated in a technically challenging part of the petrous apex. Additional magnetic resonance venography is recommended to circumnavigate the venous plexus, thereby avoiding an unexpected breach.

Lichen sclerosis et atrophicus masquerading as tonsillar squamous cell carcinoma.

OBJECTIVE: We report a case of a 70-year-old man of Asian origin with lichen sclerosus et atrophicus affecting the tonsil, which presented as a painful, enlarging, exophytic lesion mimicking squamous cell carcinoma. METHOD: We present a case report and a review of the world literature regarding lichen sclerosus et atrophicus. RESULTS: Lichen sclerosus is a chronic, benign, inflammatory dermatosis of the skin and mucous membranes which mostly affects the female genitalia, presenting as white plaques with epidermal atrophy. The cause is unknown, although a number of aetiologies have been proposed. The prevalence is unknown. Women have been reported to be affected six to 10 times more than men, and the condition has no known racial preference. CONCLUSION: Our patient illustrates a rare case of the condition lichen sclerosus et atrophicus; to our knowledge, this case represents the first report of tonsillar involvement of the condition. The case presented a diagnostic challenge.

Is bacterial colonisation of the tonsillar fossa a factor in post-tonsillectomy haemorrhage?

OBJECTIVES: To identify if there is a link between bacterial colonisation of the tonsillar fossa and post-tonsillectomy haemorrhage. STUDY DESIGN AND SETTING: Prospective non-interventional study of 105 patients who underwent tonsillectomy during a seven-month period. The study took place in a secondary care centre, the West Middlesex University Hospital. PARTICIPANTS: The participants were 105 patients who consecutively underwent tonsillectomy. The exclusion criteria were any patients with suspected or known malignancy, or known bleeding dyscrasias. The participants underwent microbiological sampling of the tonsil pre-operatively. MAIN OUTCOMES MEASURES: The outcome measures were primary or secondary bleeding, defined as any evidence of haemorrhage in the tonsillar fossae. RESULTS: Twenty-four per cent of patients undergoing tonsillectomy had positive cultures from their tonsils pre-operatively. Patients with bacterial colonisation of the tonsillar fossa pre-operatively had an increased rate of post-tonsillectomy haemorrhage (odds ratio: 3.8, 1.1-12.1, 95 per cent confidence intervals, p = 0.04). CONCLUSION: This prospective study has found a relationship between bacterial colonisation of the tonsillar fossa and post-tonsillectomy haemorrhage. This suggests that there may be an argument for the use of antibiotics in those cases with positive pre-operative cultures. In view of the types of pathogens isolated, we feel that the management of a post-tonsillectomy bleed should include a beta lactamase inhibiting antibiotic.

Mapping the platelet profile for functional genomic studies and demonstration of the effect size of the GP6 locus.

BACKGROUND: Evidence suggests the wide variation in platelet response within the population is genetically controlled. Unraveling the complex relationship between sequence variation and platelet phenotype requires accurate and reproducible measurement of platelet response. OBJECTIVE: To develop a methodology suitable for measuring signaling pathway-specific platelet phenotype, to use this to measure platelet response in a large cohort, and to demonstrate the effect size of sequence variation in a relevant model gene. METHODS: Three established platelet assays were evaluated: mobilization of [Ca(2+)](i), aggregometry and flow cytometry, each in response to adenosine 5'-diphosphate (ADP) or the glycoprotein (GP) VI-specific crosslinked collagen-related peptide (CRP). Flow cytometric measurement of fibrinogen binding and P-selectin expression in response to a single, intermediate dose of each agonist gave the best combination of reproducibility and inter-individual variability and was used to measure the platelet response in 506 healthy volunteers. Pathway specificity was ensured by blocking the main subsidiary signaling pathways. RESULTS: Individuals were identified who were hypo- or hyper-responders for both pathways, or who had differential responses to the two agonists, or between outcomes. 89 individuals, retested three months later using the same methodology, showed high concordance between the two visits in all four assays (r(2) = 0.872, 0.868, 0.766 and 0.549); all subjects retaining their phenotype at recall. The effect of sequence variation at the GP6 locus accounted for approximately 35% of the variation in the CRP-XL response. CONCLUSION: Genotyping-phenotype association studies in a well-characterized, large cohort provides a powerful strategy to measure the effect of sequence variation in genes regulating the platelet response.

Haplotype variation and linkage disequilibrium in 313 human genes.

Variation within genes has important implications for all biological traits. We identified 3899 single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) that were present within 313 genes from 82 unrelated individuals of diverse ancestry, and we organized the SNPs into 4304 different haplotypes. Each gene had several variable SNPs and haplotypes that were present in all populations, as well as a number that were population-specific. Pairs of SNPs exhibited variability in the degree of linkage disequilibrium that was a function of their location within a gene, distance from each other, population distribution, and population frequency. Haplotypes generally had more information content (heterozygosity) than did individual SNPs. Our analysis of the pattern of variation strongly supports the recent expansion of the human population.

Notes from the SNP vs. haplotype front.

Single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) and haplotypes are commonly used genetic markers in clinical studies. We provide some broad guidelines for deciding which of the two is most appropriate in particular circumstances. Molecular haplotyping techniques are also briefly reviewed and contrasted with electronic approaches.

Genetic restriction of HIV-1 pathogenesis to AIDS by promoter alleles of IL10.

IL10 is a powerful TH-2 cell cytokine produced by lymphoid cells that limits HIV-1 replication in vivo, ostensibly by inhibiting macrophage/monocyte and T-cell lymphocyte replication and secretion of inflammatory cytokines (IL1, TNFalpha, IL6, IL8, and IL12). A genetic epidemiological scan of patients enrolled in AIDS cohorts for candidate gene-linked short tandem repeat polymorphisms revealed significant genotype associations for HIV-1 infection and progression to AIDS with markers adjacent to and tracking (by linkage disequilibrium) common single nucleotide polymorphic variants in the IL10 promoter region. Individuals carrying the IL10-5'-592A (IL10-5'A) promoter allele possibly were at increased risk for HIV-1 infection, and once infected they progressed to AIDS more rapidly than homozygotes for the alternative IL10-5'-592 C/C (IL10-+/+) genotype, particularly in the later stages of HIV-1 infection. An estimated 25-30% of long-term nonprogressors (who avoid clinical AIDS for 10 or more years after HIV-1 infection) can be attributed to their IL10-+/+ promoter genotype. Alternative IL10 promoter alleles are functionally distinct in relative IL10 production, in retention of an avian erythroblastosis virus transcription factor recognition sequence and in binding to specific putative nuclear transcription factors, suggesting a potential mechanism whereby IL10-5'A down-regulation of inhibitory IL10 facilitates HIV-1 replication in vivo, accelerating the onset of AIDS.

Complex promoter and coding region beta 2-adrenergic receptor haplotypes alter receptor expression and predict in vivo responsiveness.

The human beta(2)-adrenergic receptor gene has multiple single-nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs), but the relevance of chromosomally phased SNPs (haplotypes) is not known. The phylogeny and the in vitro and in vivo consequences of variations in the 5' upstream and ORF were delineated in a multiethnic reference population and an asthmatic cohort. Thirteen SNPs were found organized into 12 haplotypes out of the theoretically possible 8,192 combinations. Deep divergence in the distribution of some haplotypes was noted in Caucasian, African-American, Asian, and Hispanic-Latino ethnic groups with >20-fold differences among the frequencies of the four major haplotypes. The relevance of the five most common beta(2)-adrenergic receptor haplotype pairs was determined in vivo by assessing the bronchodilator response to beta agonist in asthmatics. Mean responses by haplotype pair varied by >2-fold, and response was significantly related to the haplotype pair (P = 0.007) but not to individual SNPs. Expression vectors representing two of the haplotypes differing at eight of the SNP loci and associated with divergent in vivo responsiveness to agonist were used to transfect HEK293 cells. beta(2)-adrenergic receptor mRNA levels and receptor density in cells transfected with the haplotype associated with the greater physiologic response were approximately 50% greater than those transfected with the lower response haplotype. The results indicate that the unique interactions of multiple SNPs within a haplotype ultimately can affect biologic and therapeutic phenotype and that individual SNPs may have poor predictive power as pharmacogenetic loci.

Significant association of cagA positive Helicobacter pylori strains with risk of premature myocardial infarction.

OBJECTIVE: To investigate whether genetic diversity of Helicobacter pylori influences its association with coronary heart disease, and specifically whether the risk is confined to infection with the more virulent strains bearing the cytotoxin associated gene-A (cagA) antigen. DESIGN AND SETTING: Case-control study in hospital admitting unselected patients with myocardial infarction. METHODS AND SUBJECTS: Serological status for cagA and H pylori were determined in 342 cases of acute myocardial infarction and 214 population based control subjects free of clinical coronary heart disease. RESULTS: 38.0% of cases and 30.8% of controls were cagA seropositive (odds ratio 1.38, 95% confidence interval (CI) 0.94 to 2.01, p = 0.08). In subjects < 65 years old (153 cases, 153 controls), cagA seropositivity was associated with a 1.80-fold increase (95% CI 1.07 to 3.03, p = 0.02) in myocardial infarction risk, which increased further to 2.25-fold (95% CI 1.12 to 4.53, p = 0.01) in subjects < 55 years. There was no significant association of cagA status with classical coronary heart disease risk factors. H pylori seropositivity was present in 60.2% of cases and 53.7% of controls (odds ratio 1.12, 95% CI 0.83 to 1.51, p = 0.43). H pylori seropositivity was not increased in young cases and did not show any interaction with age. CONCLUSIONS: The association of chronic H pylori infection with risk of myocardial infarction appears to be restricted to cagA bearing strains. The association is age dependent and stronger in younger subjects. Genetic heterogeneity of H pylori may explain some of the discordant findings with regard to the association of H pylori with coronary heart disease.

Significant admixture linkage disequilibrium across 30 cM around the FY locus in African Americans.

Scientists, to understand the importance of allelic polymorphisms on phenotypes that are quantitative and environmentally interacting, are now turning to population-association screens, especially in instances in which pedigree analysis is difficult. Because association screens require linkage disequilibrium between markers and disease loci, maximizing the degree of linkage disequilibrium increases the chances of discovering functional gene-marker associations. One theoretically valid approach-mapping by admixture linkage disequilibrium (MALD), using recently admixed African Americans-is empirically evaluated here by measurement of marker associations with 15 short tandem repeats (STRs) and an insertion/deletion polymorphism of the AT3 locus in a 70-cM segment at 1q22-23, around the FY (Duffy) locus. The FY polymorphism (-46T-->C) disrupts the GATA promoter motif, specifically blocking FY erythroid expression and has a nearly fixed allele-frequency difference between European Americans and native Africans that is likely a consequence of a selective advantage of FY-/- in malaria infections. Analysis of linkage disequilibrium around the FY gene has indicated that there is strong and consistent linkage disequilibrium between FY and three flanking loci (D1S303, SPTA1, and D1S484) spanning 8 cM. We observed significant linkage-disequilibrium signals over a 30-cM region from -4.4 to 16.3 cM (from D1S2777 to D1S196) for STRs and at 26.4 cM (AT3), which provided quantitative estimates of centimorgan limits, by MALD assessment in African American population-association analyses, of 5-10 cM.

The predictive power of haplotypes in clinical response.

A variety of approaches have been proposed to find genetic markers that can be used in a clinical setting. Single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) are the basis of the most commonly used approaches. Here we describe an approach using gene-based haplotypes, which are collections of SNPs located throughout the ftinctional regions of candidate genes, and organised as they occur separately on an individual's two chromosomes. The main point of this review is that the haplotype has greater power than any individual SNP to track an unobsenrved, but evolutionarily linked, variable site.

Molecular genetic diversity and evolution at the MHC DQB locus in four species of pinnipeds.

Variation was investigated at exon 2 (including part of the putative peptide-binding region) of the class II major histocompatibility complex (MHC) DQB locus for two congeneric phocid seal species and two congeneric otariid seal species. Polymorphism in one phocid species, the southern elephant seal (Mirounga leonina), was comparable to that seen in human populations, while the other phocid, the northern elephant seal (Mirounga angustirostris), has been through a severe population bottleneck and exhibited much less variation at this locus. A phylogenetic comparison of the four species was consistent with the trans-specific pattern of evolution described for other taxa at this locus, and relative nonsynonymous and synonymous substitution rates suggest the maintenance of polymorphisms by natural selection. A comparison of sequence patterns also suggested that some variation could have been generated through recombinational events, primarily within genera. These results suggest a pattern of evolution of the immune response in pinnipeds similar to that in terrestrial mammal species.

Single-nucleotide polymorphisms, haplotypes, and their relevance to pharmacogenetics.

Recognition that there is a vast quantity of human genetic variation has had a pervasive impact on modern medicine, facilitating the identification of scores of genes that underlie monogenic clinical disorders, as well as genes involved in complex disease processes. The next logical step for human genetics is the exploration and elucidation of genes involved in differential pharmacological response: responders, nonresponders, and those with adverse side effects. An understanding of the role that genes have in pharmacological response is the cornerstone of personalized medicine. Pharmacogenetic activities have swiftly embraced these tenets, leading to a proliferation of resources and approaches meant to enable and expedite targeted drug discovery and development. To realize the potential of these efforts, it will be necessary to incorporate a better understanding of the population genetic and evolutionary processes that have shaped genetic variation in modern humans. This article introduces these concepts to provide context and guidelines for the use of this variation (primarily single-nucleotide polymorphisms and haplotypes) in pharmacogenetics.

Detection and typing of the virulence determinants cagA and vacA of Helicobacter pylori directly from biopsy DNA: are in vitro strains representative of in vivo strains?

BACKGROUND: The relationship of Helicobacter pylori genotypes to gastrointestinal disease has relied on cultured isolates. This assumes that cultured strains are representative of in vivo strains. OBJECTIVE: To detect and type the cagA status and the vacA genotypes directly from biopsy DNA without the need for culture, and to further define the relationship between H. pylori genotypes and gastroduodenal pathology. METHODS: Fifty-two Caucasian patients undergoing routine endoscopy for dyspepsia had additional biopsies taken from four gastric sites and one duodenal site for biopsy DNA preparation. An antral sample was taken for biopsy culture. All recruited patients were H. pylori-positive on rapid urease test for Campylobacter-like organisms (CLO test) and/or histology. By polymerase chain reaction (PCR), the cagA status and the vacA s and m types were detected directly from biopsy DNA. RESULTS: H. pylori isolates were cultured from 28/52 patients in whom infection was detected by PCR. Two isolate types differed from biopsy types. Fifty of the 52 patients, strains were typable from all four gastric sites and in 51/52 the same strain predominated throughout. The cancer strains were all cagA-positive/vacA s1 type. There was a correlation between cagA positivity and vacA s1 (41/43). There was no difference between the cagA-positive/vacA s1 strains and the presence or absence of ulcers. There were only 5/52 vacA s2 m2 and four were in the non-ulcer dyspeptic group. CONCLUSION: cagA status and the vacA genotyping was successful with tissue samples taken directly from gastric and duodenal biopsies. Discrepancies between isolate and biopsy strain types stress the need for caution when interpreting in vitro strain types and suggest that direct PCR of biopsies is the preferred typing technique. The cagA status and the s1 vacA allele are unreliable as single markers in determining the risk of developing peptic ulcer disease.

Helicobacter pylori cagA status, vacA genotypes and ulcer disease.

OBJECTIVE: Helicobacter pylori is the causative organism of peptic ulcer disease and has two putative virulence determinants: the cagA gene which encodes a protein of unknown function in 60% of strains, and the vacA gene, which is present in all strains, although active cytotoxin is produced in only about 50% of these. The relationship between genotypes of both cagA and vacA and resultant gastroduodenal pathology is unclear. The objective of this study was to correlate vacA genotype and cagA status with gastroduodenal pathology. METHODS: One hundred and six dyspeptic patients were studied (average age 56 years, range 19-86 years, 56 men) referred for routine endoscopy. Macroscopic evidence of gastroduodenal disease was noted and antral biopsies taken for culture and genotyping of H. pylori. The polymerase chain reaction (PCR) was used to detect the cagA and vacA genes of H. pylori using specific primers. RESULTS: Seventy eight of the 106 (73.6%) patients were cagA positive. Of those who had peptic ulcer disease 29/32 (90.6%) were cagA positive. The presence of the cagA gene was significantly associated with peptic ulcer disease (P = 0.006). The presence of the vacA s1 genotype was also significantly associated with peptic ulcer disease (P = 0.01). The presence of the cagA gene was significantly associated with the vacA s1 genotype (P < 0.001). There was no significant difference in the distribution of the s1/m1 and s1/m2 strains between ulcer and non-ulcer patients. CONCLUSION: There is a significant association of the cagA gene and vacA s1 signal sequence with gastroduodenal ulcer disease. The relationship of the various other vacA genotypes to gastroduodenal ulcer disease is less clear.

Dating the origin of the CCR5-Delta32 AIDS-resistance allele by the coalescence of haplotypes.

The CCR5-Delta32 deletion obliterates the CCR5 chemokine and the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)-1 coreceptor on lymphoid cells, leading to strong resistance against HIV-1 infection and AIDS. A genotype survey of 4,166 individuals revealed a cline of CCR5-Delta32 allele frequencies of 0%-14% across Eurasia, whereas the variant is absent among native African, American Indian, and East Asian ethnic groups. Haplotype analysis of 192 Caucasian chromosomes revealed strong linkage disequilibrium between CCR5 and two microsatellite loci. By use of coalescence theory to interpret modern haplotype genealogy, we estimate the origin of the CCR5-Delta32-containing ancestral haplotype to be approximately 700 years ago, with an estimated range of 275-1,875 years. The geographic cline of CCR5-Delta32 frequencies and its recent emergence are consistent with a historic strong selective event (e.g. , an epidemic of a pathogen that, like HIV-1, utilizes CCR5), driving its frequency upward in ancestral Caucasian populations.