Targeting human CALR-mutated MPN progenitors with a neoepitope-directed monoclonal antibody.

Calreticulin (CALR) is recurrently mutated in myelofibrosis via a frameshift that removes an endoplasmic reticulum retention signal, creating a neoepitope potentially targetable by immunotherapeutic approaches. We developed a specific rat monoclonal IgG2α antibody, 4D7, directed against the common sequence encoded by both insertion and deletion mutations. 4D7 selectively bound to cells co-expressing mutant CALR and thrombopoietin receptor (TpoR) and blocked JAK-STAT signalling, TPO-independent proliferation and megakaryocyte differentiation of mutant CALR myelofibrosis progenitors by disrupting the binding of CALR dimers to TpoR. Importantly, 4D7 inhibited proliferation of patient samples with both insertion and deletion CALR mutations but not JAK2 V617F and prolonged survival in xenografted bone marrow models of mutant CALR-dependent myeloproliferation. Together, our data demonstrate a novel therapeutic approach to target a problematic disease driven by a recurrent somatic mutation that would normally be considered undruggable.

Accumulation of JAK activation loop phosphorylation is linked to type I JAK inhibitor withdrawal syndrome in myelofibrosis.

Treatment of patients with myelofibrosis with the type I JAK (Janus kinase) inhibitor ruxolitinib paradoxically induces JAK2 activation loop phosphorylation and is associated with a life-threatening cytokine-rebound syndrome if rapidly withdrawn. We developed a time-dependent assay to mimic ruxolitinib withdrawal in primary JAK2V617F and CALR mutant myelofibrosis patient samples and observed notable activation of spontaneous STAT signaling in JAK2V617F samples after drug washout. Accumulation of ruxolitinib-induced JAK2 phosphorylation was dose dependent and correlated with rebound signaling and the presence of a JAK2V617F mutation. Ruxolitinib prevented dephosphorylation of a cryptic site involving Tyr1007/1008 in JAK2 blocking ubiquitination and degradation. In contrast, a type II JAK inhibitor, CHZ868, did not induce JAK2 phosphorylation, was not associated with withdrawal signaling, and was superior in the eradication of flow-purified JAK2V617F mutant CD34+ progenitors after drug washout. Type I inhibitor-induced loop phosphorylation may act as a pathogenic signaling node released upon drug withdrawal, especially in JAK2V617F patients.

A Negative Regulatory Mechanism Involving 14-3-3ζ Limits Signaling Downstream of ROCK to Regulate Tissue Stiffness in Epidermal Homeostasis.

ROCK signaling causes epidermal hyper-proliferation by increasing ECM production, elevating dermal stiffness, and enhancing Fak-mediated mechano-transduction signaling. Elevated dermal stiffness in turn causes ROCK activation, establishing mechano-reciprocity, a positive feedback loop that can promote tumors. We have identified a negative feedback mechanism that limits excessive ROCK signaling during wound healing and is lost in squamous cell carcinomas (SCCs). Signal flux through ROCK was selectively tuned down by increased levels of 14-3-3ζ, which interacted with Mypt1, a ROCK signaling antagonist. In 14-3-3ζ(-/-) mice, unrestrained ROCK signaling at wound margins elevated ECM production and reduced ECM remodeling, increasing dermal stiffness and causing rapid wound healing. Conversely, 14-3-3ζ deficiency enhanced cutaneous SCC size. Significantly, inhibiting 14-3-3ζ with a novel pharmacological agent accelerated wound healing 2-fold. Patient samples of chronic non-healing wounds overexpressed 14-3-3ζ, while cutaneous SCCs had reduced 14-3-3ζ. These results reveal a novel 14-3-3ζ-dependent mechanism that negatively regulates mechano-reciprocity, suggesting new therapeutic opportunities.

Molecular basis of cytokine receptor activation.

Cytokines are secreted soluble peptides that precisely regulate multiple cellular functions. Amongst these the GM-CSF/IL-3/IL-5 family of cytokines controls whether hematopoietic cells will survive or apoptose, proliferate, differentiate, migrate, or perform effector functions such as phagocytosis or reactive oxygen species release. Their potent and pleiotropic activities are mediated through binding to high affinity membrane receptors at surprisingly low numbers per cell. Receptor binding triggers a cascade of intracellular signaling events, including reversible phosphorylation of receptor subunits and associated signaling molecules, leading to multiple biological responses, with the prevention of apoptosis or "cell survival" being a key cellular function that underpins all others. Many chronic inflammatory diseases and a number of haematological malignancies are driven by deregulated GM-CSF, IL-3, or IL-5 cytokine receptor signaling, highlighting their importance in disease. A major step in understanding how these cytokine receptors function is to elucidate their three dimensional structure and to relate this to the many signaling pathways emanating from their receptors. We have recently solved the structure of the human GM-CSF receptor complexed to GM-CSF which revealed distinct forms of receptor assembly: a hexamer that comprises two molecules each of GM-CSF, GM-CSF receptor alpha chain and GM-CSF receptor beta chain; and an unexpected dodecamer in which two hexameric complexes associate through a novel site 4. This latter form is necessary to bring JAK2 molecules sufficiently close together to enable full receptor activation. In this review we focus on the most recent insights in cytokine receptor signaling, and in receptor assembly. The stage is now set to link distinct forms of cytokine receptor assembled structures to specific forms of cytokine receptor signaling and function. Armed with this knowledge it may be possible to map distinct cytokine receptor signaling pathways from the cell surface to the cell nucleus which may themselves become new therapeutic targets.

14-3-3:Shc scaffolds integrate phosphoserine and phosphotyrosine signaling to regulate phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase activation and cell survival.

Integrated cascades of protein tyrosine and serine/threonine phosphorylation play essential roles in transducing signals in response to growth factors and cytokines. How adaptor or scaffold proteins assemble signaling complexes through both phosphotyrosine and phosphoserine/threonine residues to regulate specific signaling pathways and biological responses is unclear. We show in multiple cell types that endogenous 14-3-3zeta is phosphorylated on Tyr(179) in response to granulocyte macrophage colony-stimulating factor. Importantly, 14-3-3zeta can function as an intermolecular bridge that couples to phosphoserine residues and also directly binds the SH2 domain of Shc via Tyr(179). The assembly of these 14-3-3:Shc scaffolds is specifically required for the recruitment of a phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase signaling complex and the regulation of CTL-EN cell survival in response to cytokine. The biological significance of these findings was further demonstrated using primary bone marrow-derived mast cells from 14-3-3zeta(-/-) mice. We show that cytokine was able to promote Akt phosphorylation and viability of primary mast cells derived from 14-3-3zeta(-/-) mice when reconstituted with wild type 14-3-3zeta, but the Akt phosphorylation and survival response was reduced in cells reconstituted with the Y179F mutant. Together, these results show that 14-3-3:Shc scaffolds can act as multivalent signaling nodes for the integration of both phosphoserine/threonine and phosphotyrosine pathways to regulate specific cellular responses.

The structure of the GM-CSF receptor complex reveals a distinct mode of cytokine receptor activation.

Granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor (GM-CSF) is a pleiotropic cytokine that controls the production and function of blood cells, is deregulated in clinical conditions such as rheumatoid arthritis and leukemia, yet offers therapeutic value for other diseases. Its receptors are heterodimers consisting of a ligand-specific alpha subunit and a betac subunit that is shared with the interleukin (IL)-3 and IL-5 receptors. How signaling is initiated remains an enigma. We report here the crystal structure of the human GM-CSF/GM-CSF receptor ternary complex and its assembly into an unexpected dodecamer or higher-order complex. Importantly, mutagenesis of the GM-CSF receptor at the dodecamer interface and functional studies reveal that dodecamer formation is required for receptor activation and signaling. This unusual form of receptor assembly likely applies also to IL-3 and IL-5 receptors, providing a structural basis for understanding their mechanism of activation and for the development of therapeutics.

A functional 14-3-3zeta-independent association of PI3-kinase with glycoprotein Ib alpha, the major ligand-binding subunit of the platelet glycoprotein Ib-IX-V complex.

Engagement of the adhesion receptor glycoprotein (GP) Ib-IX-V by von Willebrand factor (VWF) mediates platelet adhesion to damaged vessels and triggers platelet activation and thrombus formation in heart attack and stroke. GPIb-IX-V contains distinct 14-3-3zeta-binding sites at the GPIb alpha C-terminus involving phosphorylation of Ser609, an upstream site involving phosphorylated Ser587/Ser590, and a protein kinase A (PKA)-dependent site on GPIb beta involving Ser166. 14-3-3zeta regulates the VWF-binding affinity of GPIb-IX-V and inhibiting 14-3-3zeta association blocks receptor signaling, suggesting a key functional role for 14-3-3zeta. We used deletion mutants of GPIb alpha expressed in Chinese hamster ovary (CHO) cells to define the relationship of 14-3-3zeta binding to another GPIb-IX-V-associated signaling protein, phosphoinositide 3-kinase (PI3-kinase). Pull-down experiments involving glutathione S-transferase (GST)-PI3-kinase/p85-subunit and GST-14-3-3zeta indicated that both proteins interacted with contiguous GPIb alpha sequences 580 to 590/591 to 610. Deleting these, but not upstream sequences of GPIb alpha expressed in CHO cells, inhibited VWF/ristocetin-dependent Akt phosphorylation, relative to wild-type receptor, confirming this region encompassed a functional PI3-kinase-binding site. Pull-down experiments with GST-p85 truncates indicated the GPIb alpha-binding region involved the p85 breakpoint cluster region (BCR) domain, containing RSXSXP. However, pull-down of GPIb-IX was unaltered by mutation/deletion/phosphorylation of this potential 14-3-3zeta-binding sequence in mutant constructs of GST-p85, suggesting PI3-kinase bound GPIb alpha independently of 14-3-3zeta; 14-3-3zeta inhibitor peptide R18 also blocked pull-down of receptor by GST-14-3-3zeta but not GST-p85, and GST-p85 pull-downs were unaffected by excess 14-3-3zeta. Together, these data suggest the GPIb alpha C-terminus regulates signaling through independent association of 14-3-3zeta and PI3-kinase.

The Shc-binding site of the betac subunit of the GM-CSF/IL-3/IL-5 receptors is a negative regulator of hematopoiesis.

Tyrosine and serine phosphorylation of the common beta chain (beta(c)) of the granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor (GM-CSF), interleukin-3 (IL-3), and IL-5 receptors is widely viewed as a general mechanism that provides positive inputs by coupling the receptor to signaling pathways that stimulate several cellular functions. We show here that despite the known action of Tyr577 in beta(c) to recruit Shc-PI-3 kinase (PI3K) pathway members, Tyr577 plays, surprisingly, a negative regulatory role in cell function, and that this is mediated, at least in part, through the uncoupling of SH2-containing inositol 5'-phosphatase (SHIP) from beta(c). Fetal liver cells from beta(c)/beta(IL-3)(-/-) mice expressing human GM-CSF receptor alpha chain and beta(c) Tyr577Phe mutant showed enhanced colony formation and expansion of progenitor cells in response to GM-CSF. Dissection of these activities revealed that basal survival was increased, as well as cytokine-stimulated proliferation. As expected, the recruitment and activation of Shc was abolished, but interestingly, Gab-2 and Akt phosphorylation increased. Significantly, the activation of PI3K was enhanced and prolonged, accompanied by loss of SHIP activity. These results reveal a previously unrecognized negative signaling role for Tyr577 in beta(c) and demonstrate that uncoupling Shc from cytokine receptors enhances PI3K signaling as well as survival and proliferation.

Growth factor pleiotropy is controlled by a receptor Tyr/Ser motif that acts as a binary switch.

Pleiotropism is a hallmark of cytokines and growth factors; yet, the underlying mechanisms are not clearly understood. We have identified a motif in the granulocyte macrophage-colony-stimulating factor receptor composed of a tyrosine and a serine residue that functions as a binary switch for the independent regulation of multiple biological activities. Signalling occurs either through Ser585 at lower cytokine concentrations, leading to cell survival only, or through Tyr577 at higher cytokine concentrations, leading to cell survival as well as proliferation, differentiation or functional activation. The phosphorylation of Ser585 and Tyr577 is mutually exclusive and occurs via a unidirectional mechanism that involves protein kinase A and tyrosine kinases, respectively, and is deregulated in at least some leukemias. We have identified similar Tyr/Ser motifs in other cell surface receptors, suggesting that such signalling switches may play important roles in generating specificity and pleiotropy in other biological systems.

The phosphoserine-585-dependent pathway of the GM-CSF/IL-3/IL-5 receptors mediates hematopoietic cell survival through activation of NF-kappaB and induction of bcl-2.

We have recently identified a novel mechanism of hematopoietic cell survival that involves site-specific serine phosphorylation of the common beta subunit (beta(c)) of the granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor (GM-CSF), interleukin-3 (IL-3), and IL-5 receptors. However, the downstream components of this pathway are not known, nor is its relationship to survival signals triggered by tyrosine phosphorylation of the receptor clear. We have now found that phosphorylation of Ser585 of beta(c) in response to GM-CSF recruited 14-3-3 and phosphatidyl inositol 3-OH kinase (PI 3-kinase) to the receptor, while phosphorylation of the neighboring Tyr577 within this "viability domain" promoted the activation of both Src homology and collagen (Shc) and Ras. These are independent processes as demonstrated by the intact reactivity of phosphospecific anti-Ser585 and anti-Tyr577 antibodies on the cytotoxic T-lymphocyte-ecotrophic retroviral receptor neomycin (CTL-EN) mutants beta(c)Tyr577Phe and beta(c)Ser585Gly, respectively. Importantly, while mutants in which either Ser585 (beta(c)Ser585Gly) or all tyrosines (beta(c)F8) were substituted showed a defect in Akt phosphorylation, nuclear factor kappaB (NF-kappaB) activation, bcl-2 induction, and cell survival, the mutant beta(c)Tyr577Phe was defective in Shc, Ras, and extracellular signal-related kinase (ERK) activation, but supported CTL-EN cell survival in response to GM-CSF. These results demonstrate that both serine and tyrosine phosphorylation pathways play a role in hematopoietic cell survival, are initially independent of each other, and converge on NF-kappaB to promote bcl-2 expression.

The dimeric versus monomeric status of 14-3-3zeta is controlled by phosphorylation of Ser58 at the dimer interface.

The 14-3-3 proteins play a central role in the regulation of cell growth, cycling, and apoptosis by modulating the functional activities of key signaling proteins. Through binding to a phosphoserine motif, 14-3-3 alters target proteins activities by sequestering them, relocalizing them, conformationally altering their functional activity, or by promoting interaction with other proteins. These functions of 14-3-3 are facilitated by, if not dependent on, its dimeric structure. We now show that the dimeric status of 14-3-3 is regulated by site-specific serine phosphorylation. We found that a sphingosine-dependent kinase phosphorylates 14-3-3 in vitro and in vivo on a serine residue (Ser58) located within the dimer interface. Furthermore, by developing an antibody that specifically recognizes 14-3-3zeta phosphorylated on Ser58 and employing native-PAGE and cross-linking techniques, we found that 14-3-3 phosphorylated on Ser58 is monomeric both in vitro and in vivo. Phosphorylated 14-3-3 was detected solely as a monomer, indicating that phosphorylation of a single monomer within a dimer is sufficient to disrupt the dimeric structure. Significantly, phosphorylation-induced monomerization did not prevent 14-3-3 binding to a phosphopeptide target. We propose that this regulated monomerization of 14-3-3 controls its ability to modulate the activity of target proteins and thus may have significant implications for 14-3-3 function and the regulation of many cellular processes.

Threonine 391 phosphorylation of the human prolactin receptor mediates a novel interaction with 14-3-3 proteins.

The prolactin receptor (PrlR) is a member of the cytokine receptor superfamily that lacks an intrinsic kinase domain and relies on the cytoplasmic Jak tyrosine kinases to transduce signals. Prolactin-induced Jak2 activation and consequent tyrosine phosphorylation of the receptor and downstream signaling molecules have been studied, but phosphorylation of the PrlR on serine or threonine residues has not been reported. Here we describe a novel interaction between the PrlR and the phosphoserine/phosphothreonine-binding 14-3-3 proteins. This association is mediated by the KCST391WP motif, which occurs in the major functional isoform of the human receptor and is conserved among a wide variety of species. Mutagenesis of threonine 391 to alanine significantly impaired 14-3-3 binding to the PrlR in both glutathione S-transferase pulldown and coimmunoprecipitation assays. In breast carcinoma and mouse mammary epithelial cell lines, the endogenous receptor was found to associate with glutathione S-transferase-14-3-3 proteins independent of prolactin stimulation. A phospho-specific peptide antibody was generated and used to demonstrate phosphorylation of Thr391 in vivo. Phosphorylation of this site was found to be sensitive to okadaic acid, a specific inhibitor of serine/threonine protein phosphatases. Interestingly, the T391A PrlR mutant exhibited increased basal and prolactin-induced tyrosine phosphorylation compared with the wild-type receptor. This was accompanied by a ligand-induced increase in protein kinase B and Erk activation but not that of Stat5a. Phosphorylation of the receptor on Thr391 may therefore provide a new mechanism by which prolactin signaling is attenuated.