Mapping the structure and function of the E1 and E2 glycoproteins in alphaviruses.

The 9 A resolution cryo-electron microscopy map of Sindbis virus presented here provides structural information on the polypeptide topology of the E2 protein, on the interactions between the E1 and E2 glycoproteins in the formation of a heterodimer, on the difference in conformation of the two types of trimeric spikes, on the interaction between the transmembrane helices of the E1 and E2 proteins, and on the conformational changes that occur when fusing with a host cell. The positions of various markers on the E2 protein established the approximate topology of the E2 structure. The largest conformational differences between the icosahedral surface spikes at icosahedral 3-fold and quasi-3-fold positions are associated with the monomers closest to the 5-fold axes. The long E2 monomers, containing the cell receptor recognition motif at their extremities, are shown to rotate by about 180 degrees and to move away from the center of the spikes during fusion.

Conformational changes of the flavivirus E glycoprotein.

Dengue virus, a member of the Flaviviridae family, has a surface composed of 180 copies each of the envelope (E) glycoprotein and the membrane (M) protein. The crystal structure of an N-terminal fragment of E has been determined and compared with a previously described structure. The primary difference between these structures is a 10 degrees rotation about a hinge relating the fusion domain DII to domains DI and DIII. These two rigid body components were used for independent fitting of E into the cryo-electron microscopy maps of both immature and mature dengue viruses. The fitted E structures in these two particles showed a difference of 27 degrees between the two components. Comparison of the E structure in its postfusion state with that in the immature and mature virions shows a rotation approximately around the same hinge. Flexibility of E is apparently a functional requirement for assembly and infection of flaviviruses.

Regulation of Semliki Forest virus RNA replication: a model for the control of alphavirus pathogenesis in invertebrate hosts.

Alphavirus nonstructural proteins are translated as a polyprotein that is ultimately cleaved into four mature proteins called nsP1, nsP2, nsP3, and nsP4 from their order in the polyprotein. The role of this nonstructural polyprotein, of cleavage intermediates, and of mature proteins in synthesis of Semliki Forest virus (SFV) RNA has been studied using mutants unable to cleave one or more of the sites in the nonstructural polyprotein or that had the arginine sense codon between nsP3 and nsP4 changed to an opal termination codon. The results were compared with those obtained for Sindbis virus (SINV), which has a naturally occurring opal codon between nsP2 and nsP3. We found that (1) an active nonstructural protease in nsP2 is required for RNA synthesis. This protease is responsible for all three cleavages in the nonstructural polyprotein. (2) Cleavage between nsP3 and nsP4 (the viral RNA polymerase) is required for RNA synthesis by SFV. (3) SFV mutants that are able to produce only polyprotein P123 and nsP4 synthesize minus-strand RNA early after infection as efficiently as SF wild type but are defective in the synthesis of plus-strand RNA. The presence of sense or opal following nsP3 did not affect this result. At 30 degrees C, they give rise to low yields of virus after a delay, but at 39 degrees C, they are nonviable. (4) SFV mutants that produce nsP1, P23, nsP4, as well as the precursor P123 are viable but produce an order of magnitude less virus than wild type at 30 degrees C and two orders of magnitude less virus at 39 degrees C. The ratio of subgenomic mRNA to genomic RNA is much reduced in these mutants relative to the parental viruses. (5) At 30 degrees C, the variants containing an opal codon grow as well as or slightly better than the corresponding virus with a sense codon. At 39 degrees C, however, the opal variants produce significantly more virus. These results support the conclusion that SFV and SINV, and by extension all alphaviruses, regulate their RNA synthesis in the same fashion after infection. P123 and nsP4 form a minus-strand replicase that synthesizes plus-strand RNA only inefficiently, especially at the higher temperatures found in mammals and birds. A replicase containing nsP1, P23, and nsP4 can make both plus and minus strands, but prefers the promoter for genomic plus sense RNA to that for subgenomic mRNA. The fully cleaved replicase can make only plus-strand RNA, and prefers the promoter for subgenomic mRNA to that for genomic RNA. Alphaviruses alternate between infection of hematophagous arthropods and higher vertebrates. Although the infection of higher vertebrates is acute and often accompanied by disease, continuing transmission of the virus in nature requires that infection of arthropods be persistent and relatively asymptomatic. We propose that this mechanism for control of RNA synthesis evolved to moderate the pathogenicity of the viruses in their arthropod hosts.

Visualization of membrane protein domains by cryo-electron microscopy of dengue virus.

Improved technology for reconstructing cryo-electron microscopy (cryo-EM) images has now made it possible to determine secondary structural features of membrane proteins in enveloped viruses. The structure of mature dengue virus particles was determined to a resolution of 9.5 A by cryo-EM and image reconstruction techniques, establishing the secondary structural disposition of the 180 envelope (E) and 180 membrane (M) proteins in the lipid envelope. The alpha-helical 'stem' regions of the E molecules, as well as part of the N-terminal section of the M proteins, are buried in the outer leaflet of the viral membrane. The 'anchor' regions of E and the M proteins each form antiparallel E-E and M-M transmembrane alpha-helices, leaving their C termini on the exterior of the viral membrane, consistent with the predicted topology of the unprocessed polyprotein. This is one of only a few determinations of the disposition of transmembrane proteins in situ and shows that the nucleocapsid core and envelope proteins do not have a direct interaction in the mature virus.

Structures of immature flavivirus particles.

Structures of prM-containing dengue and yellow fever virus particles were determined to 16 and 25 A resolution, respectively, by cryoelectron microscopy and image reconstruction techniques. The closely similar structures show 60 icosahedrally organized trimeric spikes on the particle surface. Each spike consists of three prM:E heterodimers, where E is an envelope glycoprotein and prM is the precursor to the membrane protein M. The pre-peptide components of the prM proteins in each spike cover the fusion peptides at the distal ends of the E glycoproteins in a manner similar to the organization of the glycoproteins in the alphavirus spikes. Each heterodimer is associated with an E and a prM transmembrane density. These transmembrane densities represent either an EE or prMprM antiparallel coiled coil by which each protein spans the membrane twice, leaving the C-terminus of each protein on the exterior of the viral membrane, consistent with the predicted membrane-spanning domains of the unprocessed polyprotein.

Fine mapping of a cis-acting sequence element in yellow fever virus RNA that is required for RNA replication and cyclization.

We present fine mapping of a cis-acting nucleotide sequence found in the 5' region of yellow fever virus genomic RNA that is required for RNA replication. There is evidence that this sequence interacts with a complementary sequence in the 3' region of the genome to cyclize the RNA. Replicons were constructed that had various deletions in the 5' region encoding the capsid protein and were tested for their ability to replicate. We found that a sequence of 18 nucleotides (residues 146 to 163 of the yellow fever virus genome, which encode amino acids 9 to 14 of the capsid protein) is essential for replication of the yellow fever virus replicon and that a slightly longer sequence of 21 nucleotides (residues 146 to 166, encoding amino acids 9 to 15) is required for full replication. This region is larger than the core sequence of 8 nucleotides conserved among all mosquito-borne flaviviruses and contains instead the entire sequence previously proposed to be involved in cyclization of yellow fever virus RNA.

Modification of the 5' terminus of Sindbis virus genomic RNA allows nsP4 RNA polymerases with nonaromatic amino acids at the N terminus to function in RNA replication.

We have previously shown that Sindbis virus RNA polymerase requires an N-terminal aromatic amino acid or histidine for wild-type or pseudo-wild-type function; mutant viruses with a nonaromatic amino acid at the N terminus of the polymerase, but which are otherwise wild type, are unable to produce progeny viruses and will not form a plaque at any temperature tested. We now show that such mutant polymerases can function to produce progeny virus sufficient to form plaques at both 30 and 40 degrees C upon addition of AU, AUA, or AUU to the 5' terminus of the genomic RNA or upon substitution of A for U as the third nucleotide of the genome. These results are consistent with the hypothesis that (i) 3'-UA-5' is required at the 3' terminus of the minus-strand RNA for initiation of plus-strand genomic RNA synthesis; (ii) in the wild-type virus this sequence is present in a secondary structure that can be opened by the wild-type polymerase but not by the mutant polymerase; (iii) the addition of AU, AUA, or AUU to the 5' end of the genomic RNA provides unpaired 3'-UA-5' at the 3' end of the minus strand that can be utilized by the mutant polymerase, and similarly, the effect of the U3A mutation is to destabilize the secondary structure, freeing 3'-terminal UA; and (iv) the N terminus of nsP4 may directly interact with the 3' terminus of the minus-strand RNA for the initiation of the plus-strand genomic RNA synthesis. This hypothesis is discussed in light of our present results as well as of previous studies of alphavirus RNAs, including defective interfering RNAs.

Molecular genetic evidence that the hydrophobic anchors of glycoproteins E2 and E1 interact during assembly of alphaviruses.

Chimeric alphaviruses in which the 6K and glycoprotein E1 moieties of Sindbis virus are replaced with those of Ross River virus grow very poorly, but upon passage, adapted variants arise that grow >100 times better. We have sequenced the entire domain encoding the E2, 6K, and E1 proteins of a number of these adapted variants and found that most acquired two amino acid changes, which had cumulative effects. In three independent passage series, amino acid 380 of E2, which is in the transmembrane domain, was mutated from the original isoleucine to serine in two instances and to valine once. We have now changed this residue to seven others by site-directed mutagenesis and tested the effects of these mutations on the growth of both the chimera [SIN(RRE1)] and of parental Sindbis. These results indicate that the transmembrane domains of glycoproteins E2 and E1 of alphaviruses interact in a sequence-dependent manner and that this interaction is required for efficient budding and assembly of infectious virions.

Aura virus structure suggests that the T=4 organization is a fundamental property of viral structural proteins.

Aura and Sindbis viruses are closely related alphaviruses. Unlike other alphaviruses, Aura virus efficiently encapsidates both genomic RNA (11.8 kb) and subgenomic RNA (4.2 kb) to form virus particles. Previous studies on negatively stained Aura virus particles predicted that there were two major size classes with potential T=3 and T=4 capsid structures. We have used cryoelectron microscopy and three-dimensional image reconstruction techniques to examine the native morphology of different classes of Aura virus particles produced in BHK cells. Purified particles separated into two components in a sucrose gradient. Reconstructions of particles in the top and bottom components were computed to resolutions of 17 and 21 A, respectively, and compared with reconstructions of Sindbis virus and Ross River virus particles. Aura virus particles of both top and bottom components have similar, T=4 structures that resemble those of other alphaviruses. The morphology of Aura virus glycoprotein spikes closely resembles that of Sindbis virus spikes and is detectably different from that of Ross River virus spikes. Thus, some aspects of the surface structure of members of the Sindbis virus lineage have been conserved, but other aspects have diverged from the Semliki Forest/Ross River virus lineage.

Structure of dengue virus: implications for flavivirus organization, maturation, and fusion.

The first structure of a flavivirus has been determined by using a combination of cryoelectron microscopy and fitting of the known structure of glycoprotein E into the electron density map. The virus core, within a lipid bilayer, has a less-ordered structure than the external, icosahedral scaffold of 90 glycoprotein E dimers. The three E monomers per icosahedral asymmetric unit do not have quasiequivalent symmetric environments. Difference maps indicate the location of the small membrane protein M relative to the overlaying scaffold of E dimers. The structure suggests that flaviviruses, and by analogy also alphaviruses, employ a fusion mechanism in which the distal beta barrels of domain II of the glycoprotein E are inserted into the cellular membrane.