Regional Differences in the Small Intestinal Proteome of Control Mice and of Mice Lacking Lysosomal Acid Lipase.

The metabolic contribution of the small intestine (SI) is still unclear despite recent studies investigating the involvement of single cells in regional differences. Using untargeted proteomics, we identified regional characteristics of the three intestinal tracts of C57BL/6J mice and found that proteins abundant in the mouse ileum correlated with the high ileal expression of the corresponding genes in humans. In the SI of C57BL/6J mice, we also detected an increasing abundance of lysosomal acid lipase (LAL), which is responsible for degrading triacylglycerols and cholesteryl esters within the lysosome. LAL deficiency in patients and mice leads to lipid accumulation, gastrointestinal disturbances, and malabsorption. We previously demonstrated that macrophages massively infiltrated the SI of Lal-deficient (KO) mice, especially in the duodenum. Using untargeted proteomics (ProteomeXchange repository, data identifier PXD048378), we revealed a general inflammatory response and a common lipid-associated macrophage phenotype in all three intestinal segments of Lal KO mice, accompanied by a higher expression of GPNMB and concentrations of circulating sTREM2. However, only duodenal macrophages activated a metabolic switch from lipids to other pathways, which were downregulated in the jejunum and ileum of Lal KO mice. Our results provide new insights into the process of absorption in control mice and possible novel markers of LAL-D and/or systemic inflammation in LAL-D.

ASGR1 deficiency diverts lipids toward adipose tissue but results in liver damage during obesity.

BACKGROUND: Asialoglycoprotein receptor 1 (ASGR1), primarily expressed on hepatocytes, promotes the clearance and the degradation of glycoproteins, including lipoproteins, from the circulation. In humans, loss-of-function variants of ASGR1 are associated with a favorable metabolic profile and reduced incidence of cardiovascular diseases. The molecular mechanisms by which ASGR1 could affect the onset of metabolic syndrome and obesity are unclear. Therefore, here we investigated the contribution of ASGR1 in the development of metabolic syndrome and obesity. METHODS: ASGR1 deficient mice (ASGR1-/-) were subjected to a high-fat diet (45% Kcal from fat) for 20 weeks. The systemic metabolic profile, hepatic and visceral adipose tissue were characterized for metabolic and structural alterations, as well as for immune cells infiltration. RESULTS: ASGR1-/- mice present a hypertrophic adipose tissue with 41% increase in fat accumulation in visceral adipose tissue (VAT), alongside with alteration in lipid metabolic pathways. Intriguingly, ASGR1-/- mice exhibit a comparable response to an acute glucose and insulin challenge in circulation, coupled with notably decreased in circulating cholesterol levels. Although the liver of ASGR1-/- have similar lipid accumulation to the WT mice, they present elevated levels of liver inflammation and a decrease in mitochondrial function. CONCLUSION: ASGR1 deficiency impacts energetic homeostasis during obesity leading to improved plasma lipid levels but increased VAT lipid accumulation and liver damage.

The inhibition of inner mitochondrial fusion in hepatocytes reduces non-alcoholic fatty liver and improves metabolic profile during obesity by modulating bile acid conjugation.

AIMS: Mitochondria are plastic organelles that continuously undergo biogenesis, fusion, fission, and mitophagy to control cellular energy metabolism, calcium homeostasis, hormones, sterols, and bile acids (BAs) synthesis. Here, we evaluated how the impairment of mitochondrial fusion in hepatocytes affects diet-induced liver steatosis and obesity. METHODS AND RESULTS: Male mice selectively lacking the key protein involved in inner mitochondrial fusion, optic atrophy 1 (OPA1) (OPA1ΔHep) were fed a high fat diet (HFD) for 20 weeks. OPA1ΔHep mice were protected from the development of hepatic steatosis and obesity because of reduced lipid absorption; a profile which was accompanied by increased respiratory exchange ratio in vivo, suggesting a preference for carbohydrates in OPA1ΔHep compared to controls. At the molecular level, this phenotype emerged as a consequence of poor mitochondria-peroxisome- endoplasmic reticulum (ER) tethering in OPA1 deficient hepatocytes, which impaired BAs conjugation and release in the bile, thus impacting lipid absorption from the diet. Concordantly, the liver of subjects with non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) presented an increased expression of OPA1 and of the network of proteins involved in mitochondrial function when compared with controls. CONCLUSION: Patients with NAFLD present increased expression of proteins involved in mitochondrial fusion in the liver. The selective deficency of OPA1 in hepatocytes protects mice from HFD-induced metabolic dysfunction by reducing BAs secretion and dietary lipids absorption as a consequence of reduced liver mitochondria-peroxisome-ER tethering.

Genetic deletion of MMP12 ameliorates cardiometabolic disease by improving insulin sensitivity, systemic inflammation, and atherosclerotic features in mice.

BACKGROUND: Matrix metalloproteinase 12 (MMP12) is a macrophage-secreted protein that is massively upregulated as a pro-inflammatory factor in metabolic and vascular tissues of mice and humans suffering from cardiometabolic diseases (CMDs). However, the molecular mechanisms explaining the contributions of MMP12 to CMDs are still unclear. METHODS: We investigated the impact of MMP12 deficiency on CMDs in a mouse model that mimics human disease by simultaneously developing adipose tissue inflammation, insulin resistance, and atherosclerosis. To this end, we generated and characterized low-density lipoprotein receptor (Ldlr)/Mmp12-double knockout (DKO) mice fed a high-fat sucrose- and cholesterol-enriched diet for 16-20 weeks. RESULTS: DKO mice showed lower cholesterol and plasma glucose concentrations and improved insulin sensitivity compared with LdlrKO mice. Untargeted proteomic analyses of epididymal white adipose tissue revealed that inflammation- and fibrosis-related pathways were downregulated in DKO mice. In addition, genetic deletion of MMP12 led to alterations in immune cell composition and a reduction in plasma monocyte chemoattractant protein-1 in peripheral blood which indicated decreased low-grade systemic inflammation. Aortic en face analyses and staining of aortic valve sections demonstrated reduced atherosclerotic plaque size and collagen content, which was paralleled by an improved relaxation pattern and endothelial function of the aortic rings and more elastic aortic sections in DKO compared to LdlrKO mice. Shotgun proteomics revealed upregulation of anti-inflammatory and atheroprotective markers in the aortas of DKO mice, further supporting our data. In humans, MMP12 serum concentrations were only weakly associated with clinical and laboratory indicators of CMDs. CONCLUSION: We conclude that the genetic deletion of MMP12 ameliorates obesity-induced low-grade inflammation, white adipose tissue dysfunction, biomechanical properties of the aorta, and the development of atherosclerosis. Therefore, therapeutic strategies targeting MMP12 may represent a promising approach to combat CMDs.

Hepatic SREBP signaling requires SPRING to govern systemic lipid metabolism in mice and humans.

The sterol regulatory element binding proteins (SREBPs) are transcription factors that govern cholesterol and fatty acid metabolism. We recently identified SPRING as a post-transcriptional regulator of SREBP activation. Constitutive or inducible global ablation of Spring in mice is not tolerated, and we therefore develop liver-specific Spring knockout mice (LKO). Transcriptomics and proteomics analysis reveal attenuated SREBP signaling in livers and hepatocytes of LKO mice. Total plasma cholesterol is reduced in male and female LKO mice in both the low-density lipoprotein and high-density lipoprotein fractions, while triglycerides are unaffected. Loss of Spring decreases hepatic cholesterol and triglyceride content due to diminished biosynthesis, which coincides with reduced very-low-density lipoprotein secretion. Accordingly, LKO mice are protected from fructose diet-induced hepatosteatosis. In humans, we find common genetic SPRING variants that associate with circulating high-density lipoprotein cholesterol and ApoA1 levels. This study positions SPRING as a core component of hepatic SREBP signaling and systemic lipid metabolism in mice and humans.

Neutrophil aging exacerbates high fat diet induced metabolic alterations.

BACKGROUND: High fat diet (HFD) chronically hyper-activates the myeloid cell precursors, but whether it affects the neutrophil aging is unknown. PURPOSE: We characterized how HFD impacts neutrophil aging, infiltration in metabolic tissues and if this aging, in turn, modulates the development of metabolic alterations. We immunophenotyped neutrophils and characterized the metabolic responses in physiology (wild-type mice, WT) and in mice with constitutively aged neutrophils (MRP8 driven conditional deletion of CXCR4; herein CXCR4fl/flCre+) or with constitutively fresh neutrophils (MRP8 driven conditional deletion of CXCR2; CXCR2fl/flCre+), following 20 weeks of HFD feeding (45 % kcal from fat). FINDINGS: After 20 weeks HFD, the gluco-metabolic profile of CXCR4fl/flCre+ mice was comparable to that of WT mice, while CXCR2fl/flCre+ mice were protected from metabolic alterations. CXCR4fl/flCre+ infiltrated more, but CXCR2fl/flCre+ neutrophils infiltrated less, in liver and visceral adipose tissue (VAT). As consequence, while CXCR4fl/flCre+ resulted into hepatic "suicidal" neutrophils extracellular traps (NETs) and altered immune cell architecture in VAT, CXCR2fl/flCre+ promoted proresolutive hepatic NETs and reduced accumulation of pro-inflammatory macrophages in VAT. In humans, higher plasma levels of Cxcl12 (CXCR4 ligand) correlated with visceral adiposity while higher levels of Cxcl1 (the ligand of CXCR2) correlated with indexes of hepatic steatosis, adiposity and metabolic syndrome. CONCLUSIONS: Neutrophil aging might contribute to the development of HFD induced metabolic disorders.

Mannose Receptor Deficiency Impacts Bone Marrow and Circulating Immune Cells during High Fat Diet Induced Obesity.

The mannose receptor C-type 1 (Mrc1) is a C-type lectin receptor expressed on the immune cells and sinusoidal endothelial cells (ECs) of several tissues, including the bone marrow (BM). Parallel to systemic metabolic alterations and hematopoietic cell proliferation, high-fat diet (HFD) feeding increases the expression of Mrc1 in sinusoidal ECs, thus calling for the investigation of its role in bone marrow cell reprogramming and the metabolic profile during obesity. Mrc1-/- mice and wild-type (WT) littermates were fed an HFD (45% Kcal/diet) for 20 weeks. Weight gain was monitored during the diet regimen and glucose and insulin tolerance were assessed. Extensive flow cytometry profiling, histological, and proteomic analyses were performed. After HFD feeding, Mrc1-/- mice presented impaired medullary hematopoiesis with reduced myeloid progenitors and mature cells in parallel with an increase in BM adipocytes compared to controls. Accordingly, circulating levels of neutrophils and pro-inflammatory monocytes decreased in Mrc1-/- mice together with reduced infiltration of macrophages in the visceral adipose tissue and the liver compared to controls. Liver histological profiling coupled with untargeted proteomic analysis revealed that Mrc1-/- mice presented decreased liver steatosis and the downregulation of proteins belonging to pathways involved in liver dysfunction. This profile was reflected by improved glucose and insulin response and reduced weight gain during HFD feeding in Mrc1-/- mice compared to controls. Our data show that during HFD feeding, mannose receptor deficiency impacts BM and circulating immune cell subsets, which is associated with reduced systemic inflammation and resistance to obesity development.

The low-density lipoprotein receptor-mTORC1 axis coordinates CD8+ T cell activation.

Activation of T cells relies on the availability of intracellular cholesterol for an effective response after stimulation. We investigated the contribution of cholesterol derived from extracellular uptake by the low-density lipoprotein (LDL) receptor in the immunometabolic response of T cells. By combining proteomics, gene expression profiling, and immunophenotyping, we described a unique role for cholesterol provided by the LDLR pathway in CD8+ T cell activation. mRNA and protein expression of LDLR was significantly increased in activated CD8+ compared to CD4+ WT T cells, and this resulted in a significant reduction of proliferation and cytokine production (IFNγ, Granzyme B, and Perforin) of CD8+ but not CD4+ T cells from Ldlr -/- mice after in vitro and in vivo stimulation. This effect was the consequence of altered cholesterol routing to the lysosome resulting in a lower mTORC1 activation. Similarly, CD8+ T cells from humans affected by familial hypercholesterolemia (FH) carrying a mutation on the LDLR gene showed reduced activation after an immune challenge.

PCSK9 deficiency rewires heart metabolism and drives heart failure with preserved ejection fraction.

AIMS: PCSK9 is secreted into the circulation, mainly by the liver, and interacts with low-density lipoprotein receptor (LDLR) homologous and non-homologous receptors, including CD36, thus favouring their intracellular degradation. As PCSK9 deficiency increases the expression of lipids and lipoprotein receptors, thus contributing to cellular lipid accumulation, we investigated whether this could affect heart metabolism and function. METHODS AND RESULTS: Wild-type (WT), Pcsk9 KO, Liver conditional Pcsk9 KO and Pcsk9/Ldlr double KO male mice were fed for 20 weeks with a standard fat diet and then exercise resistance, muscle strength, and heart characteristics were evaluated. Pcsk9 KO presented reduced running resistance coupled to echocardiographic abnormalities suggestive of heart failure with preserved ejection fraction (HFpEF). Heart mitochondrial activity, following maximal coupled and uncoupled respiration, was reduced in Pcsk9 KO mice compared to WT mice and was coupled to major changes in cardiac metabolism together with increased expression of LDLR and CD36 and with lipid accumulation. A similar phenotype was observed in Pcsk9/Ldlr DKO, thus excluding a contribution for LDLR to cardiac impairment observed in Pcsk9 KO mice. Heart function profiling of the liver selective Pcsk9 KO model further excluded the involvement of circulating PCSK9 in the development of HFpEF, pointing to a possible role locally produced PCSK9. Concordantly, carriers of the R46L loss-of-function variant for PCSK9 presented increased left ventricular mass but similar ejection fraction compared to matched control subjects. CONCLUSION: PCSK9 deficiency impacts cardiac lipid metabolism in an LDLR independent manner and contributes to the development of HFpEF.

DDASSQ: An open-source, multiple peptide sequencing strategy for label free quantification based on an OpenMS pipeline in the KNIME analytics platform.

In this study we investigated the performance of a computational pipeline for protein identification and label free quantification (LFQ) of LC-MS/MS data sets from experimental animal tissue samples, as well as the impact of its specific peptide search combinatorial approach. The full pipeline workflow was composed of peptide search engine adapters based on different identification algorithms, in the frame of the open-source OpenMS software running within the KNIME analytics platform. Two different in silico tryptic digestion, database-search assisted approaches (X!Tandem and MS-GF+), de novo peptide sequencing based on Novor and consensus library search (SpectraST), were tested for the processing of LC-MS/MS raw data files obtained from proteomic LC-MS experiments done on proteolytic extracts from mouse ex vivo liver samples. The results from proteomic LFQ were compared to those based on the application of the two software tools MaxQuant and Proteome Discoverer for protein inference and label-free data analysis in shotgun proteomics. Data are available via ProteomeXchange with identifier PXD025097.

Adoptive transfer of CX3CR1 transduced-T regulatory cells improves homing to the atherosclerotic plaques and dampens atherosclerosis progression.

AIM: Loss of immunosuppressive response supports inflammation during atherosclerosis. We tested whether adoptive cell therapy (ACT) with Tregulatory cells (Tregs), engineered to selectively migrate in the atherosclerotic plaque, would dampen the immune-inflammatory response in the arterial wall in animal models of familial hypercholesterolaemia (FH). METHODS AND RESULTS: FH patients presented a decreased Treg suppressive function associated to an increased inflammatory burden. A similar phenotype was observed in Ldlr -/- mice accompanied by a selective increased expression of the chemokine CX3CL1 in the aorta but not in other districts (lymph nodes, spleen, and liver). Treg overexpressing CX3CR1 were thus generated (CX3CR1+-Tregs) to drive Tregs selectively to the plaque. CX3CR1+-Tregs were injected (i.v.) in Ldlr -/- fed high-cholesterol diet (western type diet, WTD) for 8 weeks. CX3CR1+-Tregs were detected in the aorta, but not in other tissues, of Ldlr -/- mice 24 h after ACT, corroborating the efficacy of this approach. After 4 additional weeks of WTD, ACT with CX3CR1+-Tregs resulted in reduced plaque progression and lipid deposition, ameliorated plaque stability by increasing collagen and smooth muscle cells content, while decreasing the number of pro-inflammatory macrophages. Shotgun proteomics of the aorta showed a metabolic rewiring in CX3CR1+-Tregs treated Ldlr -/- mice compared to controls that was associated with the improvement of inflammation-resolving pathways and disease progression. CONCLUSION: ACT with vasculotropic Tregs appears as a promising strategy to selectively target immune activation in the atherosclerotic plaque.

Impact of protein glycosylation on lipoprotein metabolism and atherosclerosis.

Protein glycosylation is a post-translational modification consisting in the enzymatic attachment of carbohydrate chains to specific residues of the protein sequence. Several types of glycosylation have been described, with N-glycosylation and O-glycosylation being the most common types impacting on crucial biological processes, such as protein synthesis, trafficking, localization, and function. Genetic defects in genes involved in protein glycosylation may result in altered production and activity of several proteins, with a broad range of clinical manifestations, including dyslipidaemia and atherosclerosis. A large number of apolipoproteins, lipoprotein receptors, and other proteins involved in lipoprotein metabolism are glycosylated, and alterations in their glycosylation profile are associated with changes in their expression and/or function. Rare genetic diseases and population genetics have provided additional information linking protein glycosylation to the regulation of lipoprotein metabolism.