Anti-Plasmodium vivax merozoite surface protein 3 ϒ (PvMSP3 ϒ) antibodies upon natural infection.

Merozoite surface protein 3 of Plasmodium vivax (PvMSP3) contains a repertoire of protein members with unique sequence organization. While the biological functions of these proteins await elucidation, PvMSP3 has been suggested to be potential vaccine targets. To date, studies on natural immune responses to this protein family have been confined to two members, PvMSP3α and PvMSP3ß. This study analyzed natural IgG antibody responses to PvMSP3γ recombinant proteins derived from two variants: one containing insert blocks (CT1230nF) and the other without insert domain (NR25nF). The former variant was also expressed as two subfragment proteins: one encompassing variable domain I and insert block A (CT1230N) and the other spanning from insert block B to conserved block III (CT1230C). Serum samples were obtained from 246 symptomatic vivax malaria patients in Tak (n = 50) and Ubon Ratchathani (n = 196) Provinces. In total, 176 (71.5%) patients could mount antibodies to at least one recombinant PvMSP3γ antigen. IgG antibodies directed against antigens CT1230nF, CT1230N, CT1230C and NR25nF occurred in 96.6%, 61.4%, 71.6% and 68.2% of samples, respectively, suggesting the widespread occurrence of B-cell epitopes across PvMSP3γ. The rates of seropositivity seemed to correlate with the number of previous malaria episodes. Isotype analysis of anti-PvMSP3γ antibodies has shown predominant cytophilic subclass responses, accounting for 75.4-81.7% for IgG1 and 63.6-77.5% for IgG3. Comparing with previous studies in the same cohort, the numbers of serum samples reactive to antigens derived from P. vivax merozoite surface protein 9 (PvMSP9) and thrombospondin-related anonymous protein (PvTRAP) were higher than those to PvMSP3γ, being 92.7% and 87.0% versus 71.5%, respectively. Three (1.22%) serum samples were nonresponsive to all these malarial proteins. Nevertheless, the relevance of naturally acquired antibodies to PvMSP3γ in host protection requires further studies.

Fluorescence enhancement of benzimidazolium derivative on clay nanosheets by surface-fixation induced emission (S-FIE).

The photophysical behaviors of benzimidazolium derivative [4-(1,3-dimethylbenzimidazol-3-imu-2-yl)-N, N-diphenylaniline (2-(4-(diphenylamino)phenyl)-1,3-dimethyl-1H-benzo[d]imidazol-3-ium)] (BID) in water, organic solvents and on synthetic saponite were investigated. The fluorescence quantum yield (Φf) of BID was 0.91 on the saponite surface under the optimal condition, while that in water was 0.010. Such fluorescence enhancement on the inorganic surface is called "surface-fixation induced emission (S-FIE)". This fluorescence enhancement ratio for BID is significantly high compared to that of conventional S-FIE active dyes. From the values of Φf and the excited lifetime, the non-radiative deactivation rate constant (knr) and radiative deactivation rate constant (kf) of BID on the saponite surface and in water were determined. Results showed that the factors for fluorescence enhancement were both the increase of kf and the decrease of knr on the saponite surface; especially, knr decreased by more than two orders due to the effect of nanosheets.

Usefulness of a new immunochromatographic assay using fluorescent silica nanoparticles for serodiagnosis of Thai patients with amebiasis.

A fluorescence immunochromatography (FIC) kit was developed recently using fluorescent silica nanoparticles coated with a recombinant C-terminal fragment of the surface lectin intermediate subunit (C-Igl) of Entamoeba histolytica to establish rapid serodiagnosis of amebiasis. We further evaluated the system using serum samples from 52 Thai patients with amebiasis. Of the patients, 50 (96%) tested positive using FIC. The samples were also tested using enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) with C-Igl as the antigen. Two samples were negative on ELISA but positive on FIC. The correlation coefficient between the fluorescence intensity using FIC and the optical density value using ELISA was 0.5390, indicating a moderate correlation between the two tests. Serum samples from 20 patients with malaria and 22 patients with Clostridioides difficile infection were also tested using FIC. The false-positive rates were 4/20 (20%) and 1/22 (4%) in patients with malaria and C. difficile infection, respectively. Combining the data from the present study with our previous study, the sensitivity and specificity of FIC were determined to be 98.5% and 95.2%, respectively. The results of the 50 samples were studied using a fluorescence scope and a fluorescence intensity reader, and the findings were compared. Disagreements were found in only two samples showing near-borderline fluorescence intensity, indicating that the use of scope was adequate for judging the results. These results demonstrate that FIC is a simple and rapid test for the serodiagnosis of amebiasis.

Effects of monosaccharides including rare sugars on proliferation of Entamoeba histolytica trophozoites in vitro.

Entamoeba histolytica is a parasitic protozoan with roles in pathogenicity of intestinal amoebiasis. E. histolytica trophozoites lack functional mitochondria and their energy production depends mostly on glycolysis. D-Glucose has a pivotal role in this process and trophozoites store this sugar as glycogen in glycogen granules. Rare sugars, which are defined as sugars present in nature in limited amounts, are of interest as natural low-calorie sweeteners for improving physical conditions of humans. One such rare sugar, D-allose, can be absorbed by a sodium-dependent glucose cotransporter as a substitute for D-glucose, and some rare sugars are known to inhibit growth of cancer cells, Caenorhabditis elegans and Tritrichomonas foetus. Based on these observations, we examined the effects of rare sugars on growth of E. histolytica trophozoites, together with those of D-galactose and D-fructose. The results indicate that treatment with D-allose or D-psicose (D-allulose) alone inhibits proliferation of E. histolytica trophozoites, but that these sugars enhance proliferation of trophozoites in the presence of D-glucose or D-galactose. The trophozoites could take up D-glucose and D-galactose, but not D-fructose, D-allose or D-psicose. Cell sizes of the trophozoites also differed depending on the culture medium.

The plasma membrane of focal adhesions has a high content of cholesterol and phosphatidylcholine with saturated acyl chains.

Cellular functions, such as differentiation and migration, are regulated by the extracellular microenvironment, including the extracellular matrix (ECM). Cells adhere to ECM through focal adhesions (FAs) and sense the surrounding microenvironments. Although FA proteins have been actively investigated, little is known about the lipids in the plasma membrane at FAs. In this study, we examine the lipid composition at FAs with imaging and biochemical approaches. Using the cholesterol-specific probe D4 with total internal reflection fluorescence microscopy and super-resolution microscopy, we show an enrichment of cholesterol at FAs simultaneously with FA assembly. Furthermore, we establish a method to isolate the lipid from FA-rich fractions, and biochemical quantification of the lipids reveals that there is a higher content of cholesterol and phosphatidylcholine with saturated fatty acid chains in the lipids of the FA-rich fraction than in either the plasma membrane fraction or the whole-cell membrane. These results demonstrate that plasma membrane at FAs has a locally distinct lipid composition compared to the bulk plasma membrane.

A Molecular Z-Scheme Artificial Photosynthetic System Under the Bias-Free Condition for CO2 Reduction Coupled with Two-electron Water Oxidation: Photocatalytic Production of CO/HCOOH and H2 O2.

Bio-inspired molecular-engineered systems have been extensively investigated for the half-reactions of H2 O oxidation or CO2 reduction with sacrificial electron donors/acceptors. However, there has yet to be reported a device for dye-sensitized molecular photoanodes coupled with molecular photocathodes in an aqueous solution without the use of sacrificial reagents. Herein, we will report the integration of SnIV - or AlIII -tetrapyridylporphyrin (SnTPyP or AlTPyP) decorated tin oxide particles (SnTPyP/SnO2 or AlTPyP/SnO2 ) photoanode with the dye-sensitized molecular photocathode on nickel oxide particles containing [Ru(diimine)3 ]2+ as the light-harvesting unit and [Ru(diimine)(CO)2 Cl2 ] as the catalyst unit covalently connected and fixed within poly-pyrrole layer (RuCAT-RuC2 -PolyPyr-PRu/NiO). The simultaneous irradiation of the two photoelectrodes with visible light resulted in H2 O2 on the anode and CO, HCOOH, and H2 on the cathode with high Faradaic efficiencies in purely aqueous conditions without any applied bias is the first example of artificial photosynthesis with only two-electron redox reactions.

Molecular Characteristics of Water-Insoluble Tin-Porphyrins for Designing the One-Photon-Induced Two-Electron Oxidation of Water in Artificial Photosynthesis.

Faced with the new stage of water oxidation by molecular catalysts (MCs) in artificial photosynthesis to overcome the bottle neck issue, the "Photon-flux density problem of sunlight," a two-electron oxidation process forming H2O2 in place of the conventional four-electron oxidation evolving O2 has attracted much attention. The molecular characteristics of tin(IV)-tetrapyridylporphyrin (SnTPyP), as one of the most promising MCs for the two-electron water oxidation, has been studied in detail. The protolytic equilibria among nine species of SnTPyP, with eight pKa values on the axial ligands' water molecules and peripheral pyridyl nitrogen atoms in both the ground and excited states, have been clarified through the measurements of UV-vis, fluorescence, 1H NMR, and dynamic fluorescence decay behaviour. The oxidation potentials in the Pourbaix diagram and spin densities by DFT calculation of the one-electron oxidized form of each nine species have predicted that the fully deprotonated species ([SnTPyP(O-)2]2-) and the singly deprotonated one ([SnTPyP(OH)(O-)]-) serve as the most favourable MCs for visible light-induced two-electron water oxidation when they are adsorbed on TiO2 for H2 formation or SnO2 for Z-scheme CO2 reduction in the molecular catalyst sensitized system of artificial photosynthesis.

Identification of Multiple Domains of Entamoeba histolytica Intermediate Subunit Lectin-1 with Hemolytic and Cytotoxic Activities.

Galactose and N-acetyl-D-galactosamine-inhibitable lectin of Entamoeba histolytica have roles in the pathogenicity of intestinal amoebiasis. Igl1, the intermediate subunit lectin-1 of E. histolytica, has been shown to have both hemolytic and cytotoxic activities that reside in the C-terminus of the protein. To identify the amino acid regions responsible for these activities, recombinant proteins were prepared and used in hemolytic and cytotoxic assays. The results revealed that Igl1 has multiple domains with hemolytic and cytotoxic activities and that amino acids 787-846, 968-1028 and 1029-1088 are involved in these activities. The hemolytic activities of the fragments were partly inhibited by mannose, galactose and N-acetylgalactosamine, and glucose showed lower or negligible inhibitory effects for the activities. This is the first report of a protozoan protein with hemolytic and cytotoxic activities in multiple domains.

Case of Wound Myiasis in a Squamous Cell Carcinoma Lesion of the Scalp.

Myiasis refers to the infestation of living humans and vertebrate animals by dipterous larvae. Many organs can be infested by fly larvae, but cutaneous and wound myiases are the most frequently encountered clinical forms. Persistent ulcer or non-healing wound is one of the symptoms of squamous cell carcinoma which is the second most common skin cancer in the world. Here we report a case of an elderly man with a severe wound myiasis in a squamous cell carcinoma lesion of the scalp. The maggots were confirmed to be Lucilia sericata which are widespread flies in Japan. Human myiasis is rarely reported in Japan, but patients with necrotic, hemorrhaging, or pus-filled wounds are susceptible to infestation. It is necessary for doctors and nurses to ensure that their patients change their dressings daily and keep their wounds clean.

Quantitative Proteomics Reveals Metabolic Reprogramming in Host Cells Induced by Trophozoites and Intermediate Subunit of Gal/GalNAc Lectins from Entamoeba histolytica.

Entamoeba histolytica is an intestinal protozoan parasite with remarkable ability to kill and phagocytose host cells, causing amoebic colitis and extraintestinal abscesses. The intermediate subunit (Igl) of galactose (Gal)- and N-acetyl-d-galactosamine (GalNAc)-specific lectins is considered an important surface antigen involved in the pathogenesis of E. histolytica. Here, we applied mass spectrometry-based quantitative proteomics technology to analyze the protein expression profile changes occurring in host Caco2 cells incubated with E. histolytica trophozoites or stimulated by purified native Igl protein. The expression levels of 1,490 and 489 proteins were significantly altered in the E. histolytica-treated and Igl-treated groups, respectively, among 6,875 proteins totally identified. Intriguingly, central carbon metabolism of host cells was suppressed in both E. histolytica-treated and Igl-treated groups, with evidence of decreased expression levels of several key enzymes, including pyruvate kinase muscle type 2, presenting a Warburg-like effect in host cells. Besides, Igl had potential physical interactions with central carbon metabolism enzymes and the proteolytic degradation family members proteasome subunit alpha and beta, which may be responsible for the degradation of key enzymes in carbon metabolism. These results provided a novel perspective on the pathogenic mechanism of E. histolytica and compelling evidence supporting the important role of Igl in the virulence of E. histolytica. IMPORTANCE Metabolic reprogramming is considered a hallmark of some infectious diseases. However, in amoebiasis, a neglected tropical disease caused by protozoan parasite E. histolytica, metabolic changes in host cells have yet to be proven. In this study, advanced data-independent acquisition mass spectrometry-based quantitative proteomics was applied to investigate the overall host cellular metabolic changes as high-throughput proteomics could measure molecular changes in a cell or tissue with high efficiency. Enrichment analysis of differentially expressed proteins showed biological processes and cellular pathways related to amoeba infection and Igl cytotoxicity. Specifically, central carbon metabolism of host cells was dramatically suppressed in both E. histolytica-treated and Igl-treated groups, indicating the occurrence of a Warburg-like effect induced by trophozoites or Igl from E. histolytica. Distinct differences in ubiquitin-mediated proteolysis, rapamycin (mTOR) signaling pathway, autophagy, endocytosis, and tight junctions provided novel perspectives on the pathogenic mechanism of E. histolytica.

A Novel TLR4-Binding Domain of Peroxiredoxin From Entamoeba histolytica Triggers NLRP3 Inflammasome Activation in Macrophages.

Macrophages promote early host responses to infection by releasing pro-inflammatory cytokines, and they are crucial to combat amoebiasis, a disease affecting millions of people worldwide. Macrophages elicit pro-inflammatory responses following direct cell/cell interaction of Entamoeba histolytica, inducing NLRP3 inflammasome activation with high-output IL-1ß/IL-18 secretion. Here, we found that trophozoites could upregulate peroxiredoxins (Prx) expression and abundantly secrete Prxs when encountering host cells. The C-terminal of Prx was identified as the key functional domain in promoting NLRP3 inflammasome activation, and a recombinant C-terminal domain could act directly on macrophage. The Prxs derived from E. histolytica triggered toll-like receptor 4-dependent activation of NLRP3 inflammasome in a cell/cell contact-independent manner. Through genetic, immunoblotting or pharmacological inhibition methods, NLRP3 inflammasome activation was induced through caspase-1-dependent canonical pathway. Our data suggest that E. histolytica Prxs had stable and durable cell/cell contact-independent effects on macrophages following abundantly secretion during invasion, and the C-terminal of Prx was responsible for activating NLRP3 inflammasome in macrophages. This new alternative pathway may represent a potential novel therapeutic approach for amoebiasis, a global threat to millions.

Identification of Mamu-DRB1 gene as a susceptibility factor for Entamoeba nuttalli infection in Chinese Macaca mulatta.

Entamoeba nuttalli infection is highly prevalent in captive and wild macaques. A recent study suggested that the genetic factor of host macaques was correlated with the genotypes of E. nuttalli isolates. This study focused on the correlation between the rhesus macaque host major histocompatibility complex gene and E. nuttalli infection. Thirty-nine stool samples were obtained from Mount Qing-ling (Guizhou Province, China). Polymerase chain reaction analysis detected the infection rate of E. nuttalli, Entamoeba coli, and Entamoeba chattoni as 69.23%, 69.23%, and 87.18%, respectively. A new Serine-rich Protein genotype was detected, and the rRNA of E. nuttalli isolates from Mount Qian-ling was completely identical to the GY4 strain. In the distance-based neighbor-joining tree, Mamu-DRB1, not Mamu-DPB or Mamu-B gene, was related to E. nuttalli infection. Mamu-DRB1 genes of rhesus macaques in Mounts Qian-ling and Long-hu were highly polymorphic, and the rhesus macaques with two major types of Mamu-DRB1 showed susceptibility to E. nuttalli infection. The Mamu-DRB1 gene analysis in this study indicated that the Mamu-DRB1 gene is an important factor that influences the susceptibility of E. nuttalli infection in Chinese Macaca mulatta. This study contributes to a better understanding of host susceptibility to Entamoeba.

Two Atypical Cases of Tick Bites: A Fully Engorged Tick and Multiple Ticks.

Ticks have a cosmopolitan distribution and, as such, are also found in Japan. Ticks are typically ectoparasites of wild animals, however, humans can also be bitten when visiting environments inhabited by ticks. Herein, we describe two cases with atypical tick bites. Case 1 was an elderly Japanese male patient who presented with a fully engorged tick measuring 20 × 17 × 8 mm; it is rare for ticks to attain a length of 20 mm. Case 2 was an elderly Japanese female with severe dementia who presented with multiple tick bites, which is rare, after going missing for 6 days before being found in a densely wooded area. Ticks are responsible for the transmission of many infectious agents, such as bacteria, viruses and parasites. The National Institute of Infectious Diseases and the Ministry of Health, Labour and Welfare regularly inform citizens of the risks posed by tick bites. However, the tick bites could not be prevented in our patients. Further edification about tick bites, tick-borne diseases, and their prevention are considered necessary in Japan.

Genotyping of Entamoeba nuttalli strains from the wild rhesus macaques of Myanmar and comparison with those from the wild rhesus macaques of Nepal and China.

Entamoeba nuttalli found in macaques is phylogenetically the closest species to Entamoeba histolytica and is potentially pathogenic. In this study, the prevalence of Entamoeba infections was examined in wild rhesus macaques by examining 73 and 90 fecal samples collected from two sites, Popa Taung Kalat (PTK) and Pho Win Taung (PWT), in Myanmar. The positive rates of E. nuttalli detected using PCR were 49% and 31% in PTK and PWT, respectively, but no infections of E. histolytica and E. moshkovskii were found. Entamoeba dispar was detected in 6% of samples only from PWT. Positive rates of E. chattoni and E. coli were both 70% in PWT and 67% and 79% in PTK, respectively. Six E. nuttalli strains from PTK and eight from PWT were obtained in the culture with xenic medium and then, one and two strains, respectively, were axenized and finally cloned. The genotypic analysis of serine-rich protein genes revealed two genotypes each in both sites. The genotypes found in five of six strains from PTK were similar to those from the strains found in Nepal, whereas the remaining one from PTK and two from PWT were similar to those obtained from macaques in China. The sequence of the 18S rDNA of strains with these four genotypes was identical to that of the strains from China. Six loci of tRNA-linked short tandem repeats were analyzed for further genotyping of the strains. Although there were two types in locus A-L in PTK isolates, one of each type for PTK and PWT was found in the other loci, including locus A-L in PWT strains. These results demonstrated that the E. nuttalli strains from Myanmar are closer to the strains from macaques in China rather than those from macaques in Nepal.

Analysis of D-A locus of tRNA-linked short tandem repeats reveals transmission of Entamoeba histolytica and E. dispar among students in the Thai-Myanmar border region of northwest Thailand.

Intestinal parasitic infections, including those caused by Entamoeba species, are a persistent problem in rural areas of Thailand. The aims of this study were to identify pathogenic Entamoeba species and to analyze their genotypic diversity. Stool samples were collected from 1,233 students of three schools located in the Thai-Myanmar border region of Tak Province, Thailand. The prevalence of Entamoeba infection was measured by polymerase chain reaction (PCR) using species-specific primers. Thirty-one (2.5%) positive cases were detected for E. histolytica, 55 (4.5%) for E. dispar, and 271 (22.0%) for E. coli. Positive samples for E. histolytica and E. dispar were exclusively obtained from a few school classes, whereas E. coli was detected in all grades. No infections caused by E. moshkovskii, E. nuttalli, E. chattoni, and E. polecki were detected in the students studied. The D-A locus of tRNA-linked short tandem repeats was analyzed in samples of E. histolytica (n = 13) and E. dispar (n = 47) to investigate their diversity and potential modes of transmission. Five genotypes of E. histolytica and 13 genotypes of E. dispar were identified. Sequences of the D-A were divergent, but several unique genotypes were significantly prevalent in limited classes, indicating that intra-classroom transmission has occurred. As it was unlikely that infection would have been limited within school classes if the mode of transmission of E. histolytica and E. dispar had been through the intake of contaminated drinking water or food, these results suggest a direct or indirect person-to-person transmission mode within school classes. Positive rates for three Entamoeba species were 2-fold higher in students who had siblings in the schools than in those without siblings, suggesting that transmission occurred even at home due to heavy contacts among siblings.

Immunoglobulin G responses to variant forms of Plasmodium vivax merozoite surface protein 9 upon natural infection in Thailand.

Merozoite surface protein 9 (MSP9) constitutes a ligand complex involved in erythrocyte invasion by malarial merozoites and is a promising vaccine target. Plasmodium vivax MSP9 (PvMSP9) is immunogenic upon natural malaria exposure. To address whether sequence diversity in PvMSP9 among field isolates could affect natural antibody responses, the recombinant proteins representing two variants each for the N- and the C-terminal domains of PvMSP-9 were used as antigens to assess antibody reactivity among 246 P. vivax-infected patients' sera from Tak and Ubon Ratchathani Provinces in Thailand. Results revealed that the seropositivity rates of IgG antibodies to the N-terminal antigens were higher than those to the C-terminal antigens (87.80% vs. 67.48%). Most seropositive sera were reactive to both variants, suggesting the presence of common epitopes. Variant-specific antibodies to the N- and the C-terminal antigens were detected in 15.85% and 16.70% of serum samples, respectively. These seropositivity rates were not significant difference between provinces. The seropositivity rates, levels and avidity of anti-PvMSP9 antibodies exhibited positive trends towards increasing malaria episodes. The IgG isotype responses to the N- and the C-terminal antigens were mainly IgG1 and IgG3. The profile of IgG responses may have implications for development of PvMSP9-based vaccine.

Single-Cell RNA Sequencing Reveals that the Switching of the Transcriptional Profiles of Cysteine-Related Genes Alters the Virulence of Entamoeba histolytica.

Entamoeba histolytica is an intestinal protozoan that causes human amoebic colitis and extraintestinal abscesses. Virulence variation is observed in the pathogenicity of E. histolytica trophozoites, but the detailed mechanism remains unclear. Here, a single trophozoite was cultured alone, and the progeny of the trophozoites of each generation were subjected to single-cell RNA sequencing (scRNA-seq) to study the transcriptional profiles of trophozoites. The scRNA-seq analysis indicated the importance of sulfur metabolism and the proteasome pathway in pathogenicity, whereas the isobaric tags for relative and absolute quantitation (iTRAQ) proteomic analysis did not identify the bulk trophozoites. The trophozoite improved the synthesis of cysteine under cysteine-deficient conditions but downregulated the expression of the intermediate subunit of the lectin of E. histolytica trophozoites and retained the expression of the heavy subunit of lectin, resulting in decreased amoebic phagocytosis and cytotoxicity. The variation in the transmembrane kinase gene family might be critical in regulating the proteasome pathway. Thus, the scRNA-seq technique provided an improved understanding of the biological characteristics and the mechanism of virulence variation of amoebic trophozoites.IMPORTANCE Studies on the trophozoite of Entamoeba histolytica suggested this organism could accumulate polyploid cells in its proliferative phase and differentiate its cell cycle from that of other eukaryotes. Therefore, a single-cell sequencing technique was used to study the switching of the RNA transcription profiles of single amoebic trophozoites. We separated individual trophozoites from axenic cultured trophozoites, CHO cell-incubated trophozoites, and in vivo trophozoites. We found important changes in the sulfur and cysteine metabolism in pathogenicity. The trophozoites strategically regulated the expression of the cysteine-rich protein-encoding genes under cysteine-deficient conditions, thereby decreasing amoebic phagocytosis and cytotoxicity. The single-cell sequencing technique shows evident advantages in comparison with the isobaric tags for relative and absolute quantitation (iTRAQ) proteomic technology (bulk trophozoite level) and reveals the regulation strategy of trophozoites in the absence of exogenous cysteine. This regulation strategy may be the mechanism of virulence variation of amoebic trophozoites.

Autophagy Activated by Peroxiredoxin of Entamoeba histolytica.

Autophagy, an evolutionarily conserved mechanism to remove redundant or dangerous cellular components, plays an important role in innate immunity and defense against pathogens, which, in turn, can regulate autophagy to establish infection within a host. However, for Entamoeba histolytica, an intestinal protozoan parasite causing human amoebic colitis, the interaction with the host cell autophagy mechanism has not been investigated. In this study, we found that E. histolytica peroxiredoxin (Prx), an antioxidant enzyme critical for parasite survival during the invasion of host tissues, could activate autophagy in macrophages. The formation of autophagosomes in macrophages treated with recombinant Prx of E. histolytica for 24 h was revealed by immunofluorescence and immunoblotting in RAW264.7 cells and in mice. Prx was cytotoxic for RAW264.7 macrophages after 48-h treatment, which was partly attributed to autophagy-dependent cell death. RNA interference experiments revealed that Prx induced autophagy mostly through the toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4)-TIR domain-containing adaptor-inducing interferon (TRIF) pathway. The C-terminal part of Prx comprising 100 amino acids was the key functional domain to activate autophagy. These results indicated that Prx of E. histolytica could induce autophagy and cytotoxic effects in macrophages, revealing a new pathogenic mechanism activated by E. histolytica in host cells.

Identification and biochemical characterisation of Acanthamoeba castellanii cysteine protease 3.

BACKGROUND: Acanthamoeba spp. are free-living amoeba that are ubiquitously distributed in the environment. This study examines pathogenic Acanthamoeba cysteine proteases (AcCPs) belonging to the cathepsin L-family and explores the mechanism of AcCP3 interaction with host cells. METHODS: Six AcCP genes were amplified by polymerase chain reaction (PCR). Quantitative real-time PCR was used to analyse the relative mRNA expression of AcCPs during the encystation process and between pre- and post-reactivated trophozoites. To further verify the role of AcCP3 in these processes, AcCP3 recombinant proteins were expressed in Escherichia coli, and the hydrolytic activity of AcCP3 was determined. The influence of the AcCP3 on the hydrolytic activity of trophozoites and the toxicity of trophozoites to human corneal epithelial cells (HCECs) was examined by inhibiting AcCP3 expression using siRNA. Furthermore, the levels of p-Raf and p-Erk were examined in HCECs following coculture with AcCP3 gene knockdown trophozoites by Western blotting. RESULTS: During encystation, five out of six AcCPs exhibited decreased expression, and only AcCP6 was substantially up-regulated at the mRNA level, indicating that most AcCPs were not directly correlated to encystation. Furthermore, six AcCPs exhibited increased expression level following trophozoite reactivation with HEp-2 cells, particularly AcCP3, indicating that these AcCPs might be virulent factors. After refolding of recombinant AcCP3 protein, the 27 kDa mature protein from the 34 kDa pro-protein hydrolysed host haemoglobin, collagen and albumin and showed high activity in an acidic environment. After AcCP3 knockdown, the hydrolytic activity of trophozoite crude protein against gelatin was decreased, suggesting that these trophozoites had decreased toxicity. Compared with untreated trophozoites or negative control siRNA-treated trophozoites, AcCP3-knockdown trophozoites were less able to penetrate and damage monolayers of HCECs. Western blot analysis showed that the activation levels of the Ras/Raf/Erk/p53 signalling pathways in HCECs decreased after inhibiting the expression of trophozoite AcCP3. CONCLUSIONS: AcCP6 was correlated to encystation. Furthermore, AcCP3 was a virulent factor in trophozoites and participated in the activation of the Ras/Raf/Erk/p53 signalling pathways of host cells.

Optically Transparent Colloidal Dispersion of Titania Nanoparticles Storable for Longer than One Year Prepared by Sol/Gel Progressive Hydrolysis/Condensation.

The molecular catalyst sensitized system (MCSS), where an excited molecular catalyst adsorbed on a semiconductor such as TiO2 injects electrons to the conduction band of the semiconductor leading to hydrogen evolution/CO2 reduction coupled with an oxidation of water on the molecular catalyst, has been one of the most probable candidates in the approach to artificial photosynthesis. For a full utilization of visible light, however, a serious light scattering of the aqueous suspension of TiO2 in the visible region, which is generally experienced, should be avoided. Here, we report a preparation of optically transparent colloidal dispersion of TiO2 by the sol/gel reaction of TiCl4 through progressive hydrolysis/condensation under the basic condition without any calcination processes. The TiO2 nanoparticles (TiO2(NPs)) obtained were characterized as an amorphous particle (∼10-15 nm) having a microcrystal domain of anatase within several nm by XRD, Raman spectroscopies, XRF, XAFS, TG/DTA, and HRTEM, respectively. The energy-resolved distribution of carrier electron traps in TiO2(NPs) as a fingerprint of TiO2 was characterized through reversed double-beam photo-acoustic spectroscopy to have a close similarity to that of TiO2(ST-01) as well as the observation of carrier traps by transient absorption spectroscopy. Though the powder TiO2(NP) itself was not dispersed well in aqueous solution, the wet TiO2(NPs) as prepared before being dried up provided a completely transparent aqueous dispersion under the acidic condition (1 M HCl). Addition of methanol enabled the colloidal dispersion (TiO2(NPs, MeOH/H2O, 0.1 M HCl)) to keep the optical transparency for longer than 1 year (550 days), which is the first example of TiO2 dispersion storable for such a long period. TiO2(NPs, MeOH/H2O) exhibited a moderate photocatalytic reactivity of H2 evolution with a quantum yield of ∼2.6% upon 365 nm light irradiation. An optically transparent thin film of TiO2(NPs, MeOH/H2O) was also successfully prepared on a glass plate to exhibit an enhanced hydrophilicity upon UV light irradiation.