Association of tyrosine hydroxylase 01 (TH01) microsatellite and insulin gene (INS) variable number of tandem repeat (VNTR) with type 2 diabetes and fasting insulin secretion in Mexican population.

PURPOSE: A variable number of tandem repeats (VNTR) in the insulin gene (INS) control region may be involved in type 2 diabetes (T2D). The TH01 microsatellite is near INS and may regulate it. We investigated whether the TH01 microsatellite and INS VNTR, assessed via the surrogate marker single nucleotide polymorphism rs689, are associated with T2D and serum insulin levels in a Mexican population. METHODS: We analyzed a main case-control study (n = 1986) that used univariate and multivariate logistic regression models to calculate the risk conferred by TH01 and rs689 loci for T2D development; rs689 results were replicated in other case-control (n = 1188) and cross-sectional (n = 1914) studies. RESULTS: TH01 alleles 6, 8, 9, and 9.3 and allele A of rs689 were independently associated with T2D, with differences between sex and age at diagnosis. TH01 alleles with ≥ 8 repeats conferred an increased risk for T2D in males compared with ≤ 7 repeats (odds ratio, ≥ 1.46; 95% confidence interval, 1.1-1.95). In females, larger alleles conferred a 1.5-fold higher risk for T2D when diagnosed ≥ 46 years but conferred protection when diagnosed ≤ 45 years. Similarly, rs689 allele A was associated with T2D in these groups. In males, larger TH01 alleles and the rs689 A allele were associated with a significant decrease in median fasting plasma insulin concentration with age in T2D cases; the reverse occurred in controls. CONCLUSION: Larger TH01 alleles and rs689 A allele may potentiate insulin synthesis in males without T2D, a process disabled in those with T2D.

Cardiovascular risk factors in the urban Mexican population: the FRIMEX study.

BACKGROUND: Atherosclerotic ischaemic heart disease is the second leading cause of general mortality in Mexico due to the growing prevalence of atherosclerotic risk factors in our society. The data of the FRIMEX study (Factores de Riesgo en México, Risk Factors in Mexico), considered together with those of other contemporary epidemiological surveys, will aid in our comprehension of the current state of cardiovascular epidemics in Mexico. METHODS: Frequencies of obesity, hypertension and smoking, and total cholesterol and glucose in capillary blood were estimated in a non-probabilistic sample comprised of 140017 individuals (aged 44+/-13 years; 42% men and 58% women), from six Mexican cities (Mexico City, Guadalajara, Monterrey, Puebla, Leon and Tijuana). RESULTS: Obesity or overweight status was found in 71.9% of participants. Hypertension was found in 26.5%, and the proportions of awareness, treatment and control for this disease were 49.3, 73 and 36%, respectively. Prevalence of hypertension increased with age; while it was higher in men under 60 years of age, in the more aged individuals it was higher in women. Hypercholesterolaemia was found in 40% of the individuals and cholesterolaemia > or =240 mg/dl was significantly higher in women. Thirty-five and a half percent of men and 18.1% of women were smokers. Type 2 diabetes mellitus was found in 10.4% of participants. There was significant Pearson's correlation between body mass index and blood pressure, between hypertension and glucose levels, and between hypertension and total cholesterol concentrations. CONCLUSIONS: We conclude that this population has a high cardiovascular risk profile and a high probability of the occurrence of metabolic syndrome.

Mexican anthropometric percentiles for ages 10-18.

OBJECTIVE: To elaborate Mexican growth charts based on international methodology. DESIGN: Data were obtained from the Mexican National Health Survey. The survey was stratified and probabilistic representative of all the country. SETTING: Nationwide open population living in urban and rural areas. SUBJECTS: Boys (8545) and girls (9983) from 10 to 18 years participating in the survey. METHODS: Age, weight and height were recorded. Empirical percentiles were calculated and smoothed. Smoothed curves were approximated using least-mean square estimation. RESULTS: Tables and figures for percentile values of weight, height and body mass index (BMI) for age, as well as percentile values of weight and BMI for height for both genders are presented. Regarding 50th BMI for age percentiles, Mexicans had higher levels than the Americans in the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention growth charts; Mexicans were lower but had similar weights than the Americans. Owing to the high BMI, the percentile corresponding to an overweight level (25 kg/m(2)) at 18 years was 74.5 in boys and 72.5 in girls, whereas obesity level (30 kg/m(2)) at 18 years was 97.3 and 97.4 in boys and girls, respectively. CONCLUSIONS: The present growth charts are snapshots of a Mexican population. Because of the high median BMI compared to US and World Health Organization standards, we must be cautious in establishing an upper normal cutoff for clinical normality, not merely selecting the 85th and 95th percentiles as equivalents of overweight and obesity, respectively. Therefore, we proposed percentiles 74.5 in boys and 72.5 in girls as the action points of overweight as they are the percentiles corresponding to BMI 25 kg/m(2) at 18 years. SPONSORSHIP: The survey was supported by the Mexican Minister of Health. Statistical analyses were sponsored by Dr Del-Rio-Navarro.

The body mass index is a less-sensitive tool for detecting cases with obesity-associated co-morbidities in short stature subjects.

OBJECTIVE: To assess the ability of the body mass index (BMI) to detect obesity-associated morbidity in subjects with a normal or short stature. METHODS: Information was obtained on 119 975 subjects from a cardiovascular risk factors detection program. Standardized questionnaires were used. Capillary glucose and cholesterol concentrations were measured. Diabetes, arterial hypertension and hypercholesterolemia were selected as end points. Sensitivity, specificity and the likelihood ratio for several BMI thresholds were calculated. ROC curves were constructed to identify the BMI cutoff points with best diagnostic performance. The area under the curve (AUC) was used to assess the proficiency of BMI. RESULTS: Short stature (height

Evaluation and reform of Mexican National Epidemiological Surveillance System.

To generate timely and reliable information for decision making in local health centers, Mexico's National Epidemiological Surveillance System (SINAVE) was evaluated and reformed. The reform was achieved by consensus through national meetings of epidemiologists, using a conceptual model of requirements, leadership, participation, and motivation. The new SINAVE is run by committees that use data from 16 468 local health centers that generate homogeneous information from all health institutions. Indicators, flowcharts, and standardized instruments were created. The reforms modernized SINAVE and strengthened epidemiologists' leadership, consolidated local decision making, and assessed control actions needed to improve the health of the Mexican population.

[Epidemiologic overview of smoking in Mexico]. / Panorama epidemiológico del tabaquismo en México.

Smoking is one of the main preventable causes of disease and death worldwide; 3.5 million smokers die annually. This essay shows the progress made against this epidemic in our country and points out the relevance of implementing a comprehensive program to control smoking. Results from three national surveys conducted in Mexico in 1988, 1993, and 1998 are analyzed and compared. On the one hand, the strategies should include preventive actions, protection of non-smokers, smoking cessation, banning of smoking advertisement, and tax increases; on the other hand, controlling smoking and its consequences on health depend on all of us.

Prevalence of pre-obesity and obesity in urban adult Mexicans in comparison with other large surveys.

OBJECTIVE: 1. To estimate the prevalence of pre-obesity and obesity in a 1992 to 1993 national survey of the Mexican urban adult population. 2. To compare our findings with other national surveys and with data for Mexican Americans. RESEARCH METHODS AND PROCEDURES: The national representative sample of the Mexican urban adult population included 8462 women and 5929 men aged 20 to 69 years from 417 towns of >2500 people. Body mass index (BMI), calculated from measured weight and height, was classified using the World Health Organization categories of underweight (BMI < 18.5 kg/m2), normal weight (BMI 18.5 to 24.9 kg/m2), pre-obesity (PreOB = BMI 25 to 29.9 kg/m2) and obesity (OB = BMI 30+ kg/m2). Estimates for Mexican Americans were calculated from U.S. survey data. RESULTS: Overall, 38% of the Mexican urban adult population were classified as pre-obese and 21% as obese. Men had a higher prevalence of pre-obesity than women did at all ages, but women had higher values of obesity. Both pre-obesity and obesity increased with age up to the age range brackets of 40 to 49 or 50 to 59 years for both men and women. Both pre-obesity and obesity prevalence estimates were remarkably similar to data for Mexican Americans from 1982 through 1984. Comparison with other large surveys showed that countries differed more in the prevalence of obesity than of pre-obesity, leading to differences in the PreOB/OB ratio, and that countries also differed in the gender ratio (female/male) for both pre-obesity and obesity. DISCUSSION: Pre-obesity and obesity were high in our population and increased with age. Our approach of characterizing large surveys by PreOB/OB and gender ratios appeared promising.

Survey of drug resistance of Mycobacterium tuberculosis in 3 Mexican states, 1997.

BACKGROUND: Drug resistance threatens global tuberculosis (TB) control efforts. Population-based estimates of drug resistance are needed to develop strategies for controlling drug-resistant TB in Mexico. OBJECTIVE: To obtain population-based data on Mycobacterium tuberculosis drug resistance in Mexico. METHODS: To obtain drug resistance data, we conducted a population-based study of TB cases in the states of Baja California, Sinaloa, and Oaxaca, Mexico. We performed cultures and drug susceptibility testing on M tuberculosis isolates from patients with newly diagnosed, smear-positive TB from April 1 to October 31, 1997. RESULTS: Mycobacterium tuberculosis was isolated from 460 (75%) of the 614 patients. Levels of resistance in new and retreatment TB cases to 1 or more of the 3 current first-line drugs used in Mexico (isoniazid, rifampin, and pyrazinamide) were 12.9% and 50.5%, respectively; the corresponding levels of multi-drug-resistant TB were 2.4% and 22.4%. Retreatment cases were significantly more likely than new cases to have isolates resistant to 1 or more of the 3 first-line drugs (relative risk [RR], 3.9; 95% confidence interval [CI], 2.8-5.5), to have isoniazid resistance (RR, 3.6; 95% CI, 2.5-5.2), and to have multi-drug-resistant TB (RR, 9.4; 95% CI, 4.3-20.2). CONCLUSIONS: This population-based study of M tuberculosis demonstrates moderately high levels of drug resistance. Important issues to consider in the national strategy to prevent M tuberculosis resistance in Mexico include consideration of the most appropriate initial therapy in patients with TB, the treatment of patients with multiple drug resistance, and surveillance or periodic surveys of resistance among new TB patients to monitor drug resistance trends.

Hepatitis A in Latin America: a changing epidemiologic pattern.

In a multicenter study, hepatitis A virus (HAV) seroprevalence was surveyed in six countries in Latin America in which in 12,000 subjects were stratified for age. The highest rates of seroprevalence were recorded in the Dominican Republic (89.0%) and Mexico (81.0%), with lower rates in Brazil (64.7%), Chile (58.1%), Venezuela (55.7%), and Argentina (55.0%). The seroprevalence of HAV in children between 1 and 5 years of age was less than 50%, except in the Dominican Republic. In the 5-10-year-old age group, seroprevalence rates have also decreased compared with previous reports. This suggests that the epidemiology is shifting from high to intermediate endemicity, with the population susceptible to HAV infection shifting from children to adolescents and adults. Furthermore, data from Brazil, Argentina, and Mexico show that HAV seroprevalence is significantly lower in people living in medium and high socioeconomic conditions. This study suggests the need for appropriate vaccination programs to be implemented targeting children, adolescents, and adults, particularly in higher socioeconomic groups.

Hypertension in urban Mexico: the 1992-93 national survey of chronic diseases.

The purpose of this work is to estimate the prevalence of hypertension in the urban population of Mexico. We studied a multistage national sample representative of the urban population in 417 cities of over 2500 people. The blood pressure of 14 657 individuals (6053 men and 8604 women) aged 20-69 years was measured after a 5-min rest using a standard mercury sphygmomanometer. The survey personnel had been previously trained and standardised. The main results show a crude prevalence of hypertension, as defined by the JNC VI, of 28.1% in women and 37.5% in men (27.2% and 37.1% age-adjusted). Both genders exhibited a trend of increasing hypertension with age. In individuals under 50 years of age, women had lower rates than men, but the difference disappeared in the older groups. The awareness of hypertension (28%) as well as the success of treatment (22%) were low in our sample. Our results had more similarities than differences with respect to those observed in other national surveys. It is concluded that hypertension in Mexico is an important public health problem similar to that seen in developing and developed nations. Efforts should be aimed at strengthening measures to prevent and control hypertension in Mexico. More information is needed of the sort obtained from longitudinal studies.

Seroepidemiology of hepatitis E virus infection in Mexican subjects 1 to 29 years of age.

BACKGROUND: Hepatitis E virus (HEV) infection causes an acute, self-limited hepatitis associated with high mortality in pregnant women. Community-based surveys are scarce and information on HEV infection in populations is needed. The aim of this work was to study seroprevalence to HEV in young adults and children in Mexico, using a community-based survey. METHODS: Serum samples from 3,549 individuals were studied; the population included subjects from 1 to 29 years old from all regions of the country representing all socioeconomic levels. IgG anti-HEV was determined by ELISA. RESULTS: Anti-HEV antibodies were found in 374 (10.5%) individuals. Seroprevalence increased with age from 1.1% in children younger than 5 years to 14.2% in persons 26 to 29 years of age (p = 0.006). Risk factors for infection included living in rural communities and a low educational level. Seroprevalence was not associated with the level of regional development. CONCLUSIONS: HEV infection is endemic in Mexico. Age, type of community, and educational level were identified as risk factors for infection.

Serologic IgG response to urease in Helicobacter pylori-infected persons from Mexico.

Helicobacter pylori urease is required to counteract acidity during colonization of the stomach, and has been suggested as a major immunodominant antigen. The aim of this study was to determine the anti-urease response in a representative national serologic survey in Mexico. The population surveyed included persons 1-90 years of age from all socioeconomic levels and geographic zones of the country. Helicobacter pylori status was determined by ELISA serology. The IgG anti-urease was studied by ELISA using a recombinant apoenzyme. We found that 2,930 of the 7,720 infected patients (38%) were seropositive for IgG urease. The rate of IgG anti-urease positivity increased with age; in children < 10 years old it was < 20% and in persons > 40 years old it was > 50%. Age and a region with a high level of development were risk factors for seropositivity, whereas gender, educational level, crowding, and socioeconomic level were not associated with seropositivity. In conclusion, in natural infection with H. pylori, the response to urease is poor, mainly during the first years of infection. This inconsistent immune response to the enzyme may favor persistence of infection. A vaccine eliciting a consistent anti-urease response might overcome immune evasion and enhance clearance of bacteria after exposure.

Susceptibility to varicella-zoster infection in individuals 1 to 29 years of age in Mexico.

BACKGROUND: The prevalence of varicella zoster virus (VZV) infection has been poorly studied in Latin America. The aim of this work was to study the seroprevalence of antibody to VZV infection in Mexico. Infection was determined in 3,737 individuals. METHODS: Samples were collected during a national serologic survey performed during 1987-1988 and represented individuals 1- to 29-years-old from all socioeconomic levels and from rural and urban communities throughout the country. Antibodies anti-VZV were measured with a commercially available enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (VARELISA Merck, Germany). RESULTS: In the population studied, 464 individuals (12.4%) were seronegative or susceptible to infection, whereas about 17.0% of individuals 1- to 19-years-old were susceptible to infection. Between the ages of 20 to 24 years, 8.4% were susceptible and between 25 to 29 years, 5.0% of persons were still susceptible to infection. CONCLUSIONS: Socioeconomic level, density of population, crowding, and gender were not found as risk factors for susceptibility to VZV infection in adolescents and young adults. Low educational level was found as a risk factor for susceptibility. High proportions of adolescents and young adults in Mexico are susceptible to VZV infection and should receive special attention when designing vaccination programs.

Serologic evidences suggesting the presence of Borrelia burgdorferi infection in Mexico.

BACKGROUND: Lyme disease is the most common vector-borne human disease in Europe and the United States. In Mexico, clinical cases suggestive of Lyme borreliosis have been reported; however, infection was not confirmed by serologic or microbiologic tests. METHODS: To study the prevalence of IgG antibodies against Borrelia burgdorferi among Mexican persons, a community-based sero-survey including all states of Mexico was done. A sample of 2,890 sera representing individuals of all ages and all socioeconomic levels was studied. Antibodies anti-B. burgdorferi were determined by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) using a whole-cell sonicated extract of B. burgdorferi strain B31. Serum specimens positive for ELISA were further studied by Western blot (WB). A serum sample was considered positive by WB if at least three of the following protein bands were recognized: 18, 24, 28, 29, 31, 34, 39, 41, 45, 58, 62, 66, and 93 kDa. Some WB positive specimens were further confirmed with an immunodot-blot (IDB) test using recombinant and purified B. burgdorferi proteins. RESULTS: Of the 2,890 specimens, 34 were positive for ELISA; nine of these 34 were confirmed as positive by WB. Four of the nine WB positive sera were tested by IDB and all four were positive. The prevalence of WB confirmed cases in the sample studied was 0.3%. Positive specimens were from residents of the northeastern and central areas of Mexico. CONCLUSIONS: The serological evidences of this study suggest that Borrelia burgdorferi infection is present in the Mexican population. This finding should be confirmed by documenting the infection in clinical cases and in tick vectors.

A community-based seroepidemiologic study of Helicobacter pylori infection in Mexico.

A nationwide community-based survey for Helicobacter pylori infection had not been done. This study sought to determine the seroprevalence of infection in Mexico, and the socioeconomic and demographic variables that are risk factors for infection. The survey assessed 11,605 sera from a sample population representing persons ages 1-90 years from all socioeconomic and demographic levels and from all regions of Mexico. Antibodies against H. pylori were studied by ELISA using whole cell antigen. Among the findings were that 66% of the population was infected and that age was the strongest risk factor for infection. By age 1 year, 20% were infected and by age 10 years, 50% were infected. Crowding (odds ratio [OR], 1.4), low educational level (OR, 2.42), and low socioeconomic level (OR, 1.43) were risk factors for infection. Prevalence was similar in urban and in rural communities (OR, 0.95). This study is the largest community-based seroepidemiologic study of H. pylori to date.

Alcohol consumption and pregnancy in the Mexican national addiction survey.

In 1988, the General Directorate of Epidemiology and the Mexican Institute of Psychiatry conducted the first National Addiction Survey (ENA), providing regional and national data on alcohol, tobacco, and drug use. The ENA providing a subsample of women who have been pregnant at some time in their lives. There were 5,234 affirmative responses. Women were asked if they had suffered any of three adverse outcomes during their last pregnancy: spontaneous abortion, stillbirth, and congenital abnormalities. Prevalence of spontaneous abortion was 3.8%, stillbirth 1.2%, and congenital abnormalities 1.1 %. Multiple logistic-regression models were used to analyze the effect of alcohol consumption on these problems. Consumption during pregnancy was related only with the prevalence of congenital abnormalities, with prevalence odds of 3.4. Among habitual users during the last 12 months, oniy women in the highest use category showed an important relationship with the three problems mentioned. Follow-up studies on the Mexican population are recommended in order to obtain more conclusive findings.