Savory Cracker Development for Blood Glucose Control and Management: Glycogen Storage Diseases.

The blood glucose response of savory slow energy-release crackers (GLY-HYP) were evaluated in volunteers carrying glycogen storage diseases (GSDs), Types I (Ia) and IV. The crackers have been shown previously to provide a "flat" slow glucose response in healthy volunteers, for up to 4 h. On average for the mixed-sex volunteer group aged 53 to 70 for Type I, the blood glucose concentration increased from baseline to a maximum of 9.5 mmol/L at 60 min and remained above baseline for up to 210 min; overall, above 5 mmol/L for 4 h. In common with healthy individuals, a relatively flat blood glucose response was recorded. For Type IV, mixed-sex patients aged between 55 and 72, the blood glucose concentration reached maximum of 10.2 mmol/L at 45 min and then stayed above baseline for 150 min. Again, overall, above 5 mmol/L for 4 h. Altogether, these data indicate that these crackers would provide a valuable contribution to the nutritional needs of people of different age groups with GSDs (Clinical Registration Number: HRC10032021).

Lactose, Maltose, and Sucrose in Health and Disease.

SCOPE: This review represents a focus on the structure and properties of the common nutritional disaccharides (lactose, maltose, and sucrose) in health and disease. The aim is to provide a comprehensive reference source related to the role of disaccharides in human nutrition. METHODS AND RESULTS: Key reference sources are searched, including Web of Science, PubMed, Science Direct, and Wiley Online, and key reference works are selected to support the factual basis of the text where interpretations and relevance of the works are discussed in the review. There are key nutritional health benefits of receiving dietary energy in the form of sugars, but equally life-threatening issues exist associated with constant/excess consumption. These issues are discussed together with genetic disorders, which impact upon health associated with consumption of the disaccharides (e.g., specific disaccharide intolerance due to deficiency of relevant digestive enzymes). CONCLUSIONS: As the three common dietary disaccharides (lactose, maltose, and sucrose) are consumed on a very regular basis in the human diet, it is critical to understand insofar as possible their role in health and disease. This review provides an insight into the structure and properties of these molecules in health and disease.

The 'epileptic diet'- ketogenic and/or slow release of glucose intervention: A review.

BACKGROUND & AIMS: The ketogenic diet is high in fat content, adequate with respect to protein but low in carbohydrate and designed to provide brain energy as ketone bodies rather than glucose. The consequence is that epilepsy can be managed and endurance (sport) related energy be derived from fat rather than ingested or stored (glycogen) carbohydrate. This review aims to set the diet in context for seizure related intervention, sport and potential modern variants with respect to glucose management - which have many medical (including epilepsy potentially) and activity related applications. METHODS: The literature was reviewed using relevant data bases (e.g. Pubmed, Science Direct, Web of Science, Wiley on Line Library) and relevant articles were selected to provide historic and contemporary data for the text and associated Tables. RESULTS: It is clear great health related benefits have been achieved by feeding the ketogenic to individuals subject to seizures where it helps manage the malaise. Sports applications are evident to. Glucose control diets provide health benefits of the ketogenic diet potentially and there is some evidence they are/can be very effective. CONCLUSIONS: Key to epilepsy and sport performance is the control of blood glucose. The ketogenic diet has proven to be very effective in this regard but now other approaches to control blood glucose ae being evaluated which have advantages over the ketogenic diet. This therapeutic approach of clinical nutrition will undoubtedly move forwards over the next few years in view of the negative aspects of the ketogenic diet.

Fructose, galactose and glucose - In health and disease.

BACKGROUND AND AIMS: Monosaccharides are important components of the diet, where the sweetness of these common sugars draw animals to eat the tissue within which they are located - especially fruits. Higher (larger) saccharides, within which they are constituents, are ubiquitous throughout nature too - and include disaccharides, oligosaccharides and polysaccharides. These may be converted (hydrolysed) to monosaccharides by the plant tissue enzymes during ripening and stimulate consumption by a predator (whereupon seeds within the fruit are dispersed). Predators may have relevant enzymes in their digestive tract to effect conversion of the larger carbohydrates to its monosaccharides - which are then absorbed from the gut and like free monosaccharides in fruit/vegetables, provide an energy source. Starch is an important source of glucose. This review (on monosaccharides) is part one of a series of three which aim to link the role of carbohydrates in food through processing to health and disease related issues. The emphasis here is to understand the role of the three key monosaccharides from the diet - fructose, galactose and glucose - with perspectives in health and disease. METHODS: The review was based on a review of relevant databases for material (e.g. Pubmed, Science Direct, Web of Science, Wiley online library etc.). RESULTS: Data pertaining to the nutritional role of key dietary monosaccharides were evaluated together with their utilisation and role in health and disease. Disease states and their management in the context of monosaccharide consumption were considered. CONCLUSIONS: The body is designed to utilise carbohydrates - where a physiological balance of ingestion, storage and utilisation is critical. In disease states, the balance is lost and a number of carbohydrate based metabolic disorders are established within the medical community. Overall, this review considers digestive and metabolic issues associated with free monosaccharides commonly consumed in the human diet. Further reviews will focus on common di-, oligo and polysaccharides relevant to digestive energy and overall health.

Utilisation of dietary fibre (non-starch polysaccharide and resistant starch) molecules for diarrhoea therapy: A mini-review.

Within the last ten years the utilisation of dietary fibre formats (non-starch polysaccharide and resistant starch) for diarrhoea therapy, have been evaluated. These polysaccharides ferment within the colon and generate short chain fatty acids which facilitate sodium absorption. Comparisons between polysaccharide structure/physico-chemical properties and fermentation capacity in the large intestine are presented. The potential dichotomy associated with recommending dietary fibre ingestion to avoid and treat diarrhoea is also considered. Overall, this mini-review presents an overview of the current knowledge with respect to role of dietary fibre in the management (prevention and treatment) of diarrhoea (osmotic and secretory). It aims to inform the medical and non-medical communities with respect to this relatively poorly researched and understood health related area. Different forms of dietary fibre are considered in this context along with their mechanisms of action.

Starch granules as active guest molecules or microorganism delivery systems.

Starch granules contain an internal channel structure that can be used to encapsulate and deliver active ingredients such as nutrients, drugs, chemicals and microorganisms. Nature creates a broad range of starch granule sizes and compositions in different plants and this range of encapsulation matrices provides a great deal of commercial opportunity. Starch granules can be utilised for encapsulation in their native form or treated with amylases/amyloglucosidase to facilitate the entry of active ingredients into the granules. Interactions within the granules can be relatively passive or more structured in the form of complexes (such as amylose-lipid complexes). This mini-review evaluates this application of starch and potential commercial product opportunities.

Starch containing formulations for diarrhoea therapy.

Diarrhoea therapies in general include a number of approaches (depending on local practise and the cause of the diarrhoea) aimed at: (i) removing the cause (e.g. lactose in the diet); (ii) treating the cause of infection if present (e.g. antibiotics); (iii) reducing the effect of the cause (e.g. adsorbent); (iv) depressing gastric motility and secretions (e.g. various drugs); (v) probiotic bacteria with perhaps prebiotic energy sources and most importantly of all (vi) rehydration using rehydration salt solutions (oral rehydration therapy, ORT, using oral rehydration solutions, ORS). Glucose has been included in ORS formats for rapidly available energy since ORS formats were developed initially- but has the disadvantage of a high osmotic pressure. It is used in modern ORS formats to promote sodium absorption, however. The use of α-glucans (glucose containing oligo- or polysaccharides) in ORS formats is gaining ground in terms of utilisation for diarrhoea - a fairly recent approach to therapy in the western world. The use of different α-glucans in ORS formulations is discussed and strategies for the development further of therapies is investigated. This review is aimed at the scientific and medical communities.

Beneficial health characteristics of native and hydrolysed konjac (Amorphophallus konjac) glucomannan.

The impact of ingesting glucomannans on health is not limited to colonic-focused fermentation into short-chain fatty acids (SCFAs), which might have some local health benefits; it also helps in treating disease states and enhancing the body's immune system, both within the gut and in/on other parts of the body. The local and systemic roles of hydrolysed glucomannans, especially konjac glucomannans, in the mouth, oesophagus, stomach, small intestine, large intestine, gut-associated lymphoid tissue (GALT), skin and vagina, are highlighted. Therapeutic applications are discussed. © 2015 Society of Chemical Industry.

Efficacy of cellulase and mannanase hydrolysates of konjac glucomannan to promote the growth of lactic acid bacteria.

BACKGROUND: Glucomannan polysaccharides may be hydrolysed to lower molecular weight molecules using acids or enzymes, specifically mannanases or cellulases. Mannanases (ß-mannanases) hydrolyse ß-(1-4)-linked mannose residues randomly in mannans whilst cellulases (ß-glucanase) hydrolyse ß-(1-4)-linked glucose residues. The molecular weight of the hydrolysate is clearly dependent on the amount of hydrolysis. One use of such hydrolysates has been towards their capacity to function as prebiotics. The relative efficacy of cellulase and/or mannanase hydrolysates of konjac glucomannan to promote the growth of lactic acid bacteria (LAB) has been evaluated. RESULTS: The LAB growth profiles (expressed in colony forming units, as a function of time) in UHT milk containing konjac glucomannan hydrolysed with cellulase were significantly greater than those containing glucose (control) or konjac glucomannan mannanase hydrolysates. An equivalent mixture (1:1) of cellulase-mannanase hydrolysates added to the UHT milk also showed significant improvement on the LAB growth profiles (compared to the glucose or mannanase alone hydrolysates). Different LAB strains showed some variation in growth profiles on the hydrolysates although this was not significant as a function of carbon source. CONCLUSIONS: Glucomannan hydrolysates produced with either mannanase or cellulase enzymes were effective growth promoters (carbon sources) of LAB. However, cellulase hydrolysates were most effective.

Bioadhesive properties of ß-limit dextrin.

PURPOSE: ß-Limit dextrin has been studied for many years as a means to investigate the internal structures of amylose and amylopectin. However its role as an excipient in the pharmaceutical industry has never been reported. This paper is the first one in a series to explore its potential use as an excipient to aid drug delivery. METHODS: The bioadhesive properties of ß-limit dextrin were studied using a texture analyser and compared with two well-known bioadhesive polymers - carbopol and chitosan (as controls). RESULTS: The ß-limit dextrin has significant mucoadhesive properties; similar to carbopol but superior to chitosan. CONCLUSIONS: The nature of ß-limit dextrin (a starch derivative) makes it safe to consume and provides a natural alternative when compared with synthetic polymers. In addition, the polysaccharide can be digested by salivary amylase and thus provide a clean mouth feel.

Properties of protease-treated maize starches.

Commercially produced maize starches were treated with protease (Promod 25P) and their composition and properties were compared with untreated controls. It was found that, although protease treatment reduced the starch protein contents by 41%, 21% and 37% for the waxy, normal and amylomaize starches, respectively, it also caused some pits on the granule surfaces, which were evident by scanning electron microscopy (SEM), but no obvious decrease in granule dimensions (Coulter Counter Multisizer). The protein extraction was associated with decreases in starch lipid content by 42%, 40% and 45% (waxy, normal and amylomaize starches, respectively) and a decrease in total amylose content (30.7-26.0%) for the normal maize starch. The gelatinisation parameters of the starches by differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) in water, 0.001M HCl or NaOH were less obviously affected by protease treatment in common with the swelling factors at 80°C. The amount of α-glucan leached by the swollen (80°C) granules was, however, increased by the protease treatment by factors of 3.8, 1.4, and 1.1, for the waxy, normal and amylomaize starches, respectively. Although proteases provide a useful tool for the purification of native starches, commercial protease preparations need to be controlled in terms of amylase content to prevent modifications to starch structure and properties during industrial processing.

Dextran and 5-aminosalicylic acid (5-ASA) conjugates: synthesis, characterisation and enzymic hydrolysis.

Mesalamine (5-aminosalicylic acid) is the drug of choice for the treatment of Crohn's disease. A scheme for the synthesis of 5-aminosalicylic acid (5-ASA) conjugates of dextrans was developed with a focus on Crohn's disease applications. Dextrans were oxidised using sodium periodate (NaIO(4)), where the aldehyde groups formed were coupled with the alpha-amino (-NH(2)) group of 5-ASA. The resulting imine bonds were unstable in water and were consequently reduced to secondary amine groups. The effects of different aspects of the conjugation reaction were studied. These included the following: the molecular weight of the dextrans, the molar proportion of NaIO(4) to the dextrans (for periodate oxidation), the pH of the conjugation solutions, the ratio 5-ASA to oxidised polysaccharide and the relationship between the degree of conjugation and the amount of enzyme hydrolysis. Conjugates incubated in HCl were stable in 0.5 and 1.0M HCl, but they underwent degradation in 2.0 and 4.0M HCl. Dextrans (MW 20,000) with various degrees of oxidation (12%, 26%, 46%, 65%, 90% and 93%) were also prepared. Each oxidised dextran sample was conjugated with 5-ASA, and the product was quantified by high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC). Dextrans with a maximum degree of oxidation (93%) unsurprisingly gave maximum conjugation of 5-ASA (49.1mg per 100mg of product) but were resistant to dextranase hydrolysis. Less oxidised dextrans (12%) conjugated proportionally less 5-ASA (15.1mg per 100mg of product) but were successfully hydrolysed by dextranase, suggesting their potential applications for the treatment of Crohn's disease in the distal ileum and proximal colon.

Damaged starch characterisation by ultracentrifugation.

The relative molecular size distributions of a selection of starches (waxy maize, pea and maize) that had received differing amounts of damage from ball milling (as quantified by susceptibility to alpha-amylase) were compared using analytical ultracentrifugation. Starch samples were solubilised in 90% dimethyl sulfoxide, and relative size distributions were determined in terms of the apparent distribution of sedimentation coefficients g*(s) versus s(20,w). For comparison purposes, the sedimentation coefficients were normalised to standard conditions of density and viscosity of water at 20 degrees C, and measurements were made with a standard starch loading concentration of 8 mg/mL. The modal molecular size of the native unmilled alpha-glucans were found to be approximately 50S, 51S and 79S for the waxy maize, pea and maize amylopectin molecules, respectively, whilst the pea and maize amylose modal molecular sizes were approximately 14S and approximately 12S, respectively. As the amount of damaged starch increased, the amylopectin molecules were eventually fragmented, and several components appeared, with the smallest fractions approaching the sedimentation coefficient values of amylose. For the waxy maize starch, the 50S material (amylopectin) was gradually converted to 14S, and the degradation process included the appearance of 24S material. For the pea starch, the situation was more complicated than the waxy maize due to the presence of amylose. As the amylopectin molecules (51S) were depolymerised by damage within this starch, low-molecular-weight fragments added to the proportion of the amylose fraction (14S)--although tending towards the high-molecular-weight region of this fraction. As normal maize starch was progressively damaged, a greater number of fragments appeared to be generated compared to the other two starches. Here, the 79S amylopectin peak (native starch) was gradually converted into 61 and 46S material and eventually to 11S material with a molecular size comparable to amylose. Amylose did not appear to be degraded, implying that all the damage was focused on the amylopectin fraction in all three cases. Specific differences in the damage profiles for the pea and maize starches may reflect the effect of lipid-complexed amylose in the maize starch.

Effects of annealing on the polymorphic structure of starches from sweet potatoes (Ayamurasaki and Sunnyred cultivars) grown at various soil temperatures.

Starches extracted from the sweet potato cultivars Sunnyred and Ayamurasaki grown at 15 or 33 degrees C (soil temperature) were annealed in excess water (3 mg starch/mL water) for different times (1, 4, 8 or 10h) at the temperatures 2-3 degrees K below the onset melting temperature. The structures of annealed starches, as well as their gelatinisation (melting) properties, were studied using high-sensitivity differential scanning calorimetry (HSDSC). In excess water, the single endothermic peak shifted to higher temperatures, while the melting (gelatinisation) enthalpy changed only very slightly, if any. The elevation of gelatinisation temperature was associated with increasing order/thickness of the crystalline lamellae. The only DSC endotherm identified in 0.6 M KCl for Sunnyred starch grown at 33 degrees C was attributed to A-type polymorphic structure. The multiple endothermic forms observed by DSC performed in 0.6M KCl for annealed starches from both cultivars grown at 15 degrees C provided evidence of a complex C-type (A- plus B-type) polymorphic structure of crystalline lamellae. The A:B-ratio of two polymorphic forms increased upon annealing due to partial transformation of B- to A-polymorph, which was time dependent. Long heating periods facilitated the maximal transformation of B- to A-polymorph associated with limited A:B ratio.

Sugar profile of extracellular polysaccharides from different Tremella species.

Heteropolysaccharides isolated from liquid cultures of Tremella species were derivatised to alditol acetates and identified by GLC against derivatised sugar standards. From the sugar profiles it was evident that all of the polysaccharides contained essentially the same sugars but in different ratios. Some of the polysaccharides contained the five carbon sugars-fucose, ribose, xylose and arabinose together with six carbon sugars-mannose, galactose and glucose. The uronic acid content of Tremella heteropolysaccharides also varied according to species. In addition, carbon source (arabinose, xylose, glucose, fructose and galactose) affected the sugar (including uronic acid content) ratio within the polysaccharides.