A Toxoplasma gondii lipoxygenase-like enzyme is necessary for virulence and changes localization associated with the host immune response.

IMPORTANCE: Lipoxygenases (LOXs) are enzymes that catalyze the deoxygenation of polyunsaturated fatty acids such as linoleic and arachidonic acid. These modifications create signaling molecules that are best characterized for modulating the immune response. Deletion of the first lipoxygenase-like enzyme characterized for Toxoplasma gondii (TgLOXL1) generated a less virulent strain, and infected mice showed a decreased immune response. This virulence defect was dependent on the mouse cytokine interferon gamma IFNγ. TgLOXL1 changes location from inside the parasite in tissue culture conditions to vesicular structures within the host immune cells during mouse infection. These results suggest that TgLOXL1 plays a role in the modification of the host immune response in mice.

Transcending Dimensions in Apicomplexan Research: from Two-Dimensional to Three-Dimensional In Vitro Cultures.

Parasites belonging to the Apicomplexa phylum are among the most successful pathogens known in nature. They can infect a wide range of hosts, often remain undetected by the immune system, and cause acute and chronic illness. In this phylum, we can find parasites of human and veterinary health relevance, such as Toxoplasma, Plasmodium, Cryptosporidium, and Eimeria. There are still many unknowns about the biology of these pathogens due to the ethical and practical issues of performing research in their natural hosts. Animal models are often difficult or nonexistent, and as a result, there are apicomplexan life cycle stages that have not been studied. One recent alternative has been the use of three-dimensional (3D) systems such as organoids, 3D scaffolds with different matrices, microfluidic devices, organs-on-a-chip, and other tissue culture models. These 3D systems have facilitated and expanded the research of apicomplexans, allowing us to explore life stages that were previously out of reach and experimental procedures that were practically impossible to perform in animal models. Human- and animal-derived 3D systems can be obtained from different organs, allowing us to model host-pathogen interactions for diagnostic methods and vaccine development, drug testing, exploratory biology, and other applications. In this review, we summarize the most recent advances in the use of 3D systems applied to apicomplexans. We show the wide array of strategies that have been successfully used so far and apply them to explore other organisms that have been less studied.

Dual Transcriptomics To Determine Gamma Interferon-Independent Host Response to Intestinal Cryptosporidium parvum Infection.

Animals with a chronic infection of the parasite Toxoplasma gondii are protected against lethal secondary infection with other pathogens. Our group previously determined that soluble T. gondii antigens (STAg) can mimic this protection and be used as a treatment against several lethal pathogens. Because treatments are limited for the parasite Cryptosporidium parvum, we tested STAg as a C. parvum therapeutic. We determined that STAg treatment reduced C. parvum Iowa II oocyst shedding in gamma interferon knockout (IFN-γ-KO) mice. Murine intestinal sections were then sequenced to define the IFN-γ-independent transcriptomic response to C. parvum infection. Gene Ontology and transcript abundance comparisons showed host immune response and metabolism changes. Transcripts for type I interferon-responsive genes were more abundant in C. parvum-infected mice treated with STAg. Comparisons between phosphate-buffered saline (PBS) and STAg treatments showed no significant differences in C. parvum gene expression. C. parvum transcript abundance was highest in the ileum and mucin-like glycoproteins and the GDP-fucose transporter were among the most abundant. These results will assist the field in determining both host- and parasite-directed future therapeutic targets.

Silk-Like Protein with Persistent Radicals Identified in Oyster Adhesive by Solid-State NMR.

The cement produced by the Eastern oyster, Crassostrea virginica, may provide blueprints for waterproof biocompatible adhesives synthesized under benign conditions. The composition of this organic-inorganic composite, and of an organic extract, was characterized by 13C and 1H solid-state NMR and also compared with C. virginica shell and its organic extract. Quantification of the organic fraction by 13C and 1H NMR spectroscopy consistently showed 3 wt % organics in cement, which was higher than the 1.2 wt % in the shell. According to 13C NMR with spectral editing, the organic fraction of cement consisted of 73% protein, 25% polysaccharide, and 2% lipid. The organic acid-insoluble extract from the cement was mostly made up of protein remarkably rich in alanine and glycine. The unusual amino acid content matched the composition of silk-like proteins in the C. virginica or C. gigas genomes, including spidron-1-like and shelk2 previously found to be upregulated at the mantle edge. The corresponding extract from the shell contained 32% glycine and was also enriched in serine but not alanine, which was consistent with a previous wet-chemistry study. The 13C and 1H NMR spin-lattice relaxation in the organic component of cement and the acid-insoluble extract was 4-40 times faster than in the shell and showed pronounced nonexponentiality, indicating a high concentration of persistent radicals in the organic components of cement, in agreement with a prior EPR study. The presence of radicals in the acid-insoluble cement fraction was confirmed by observation of a paramagnetic shift anisotropy. 13C NMR corroborated prior observations that the calcium carbonate in the shell and pseudonacre was mostly calcite, whereas cement had an enhanced aragonite fraction. Surprisingly, 1H-13C NMR indicated that aragonite in cement was more distant from the organic fraction than was calcite. These results help advance our understanding of how oysters achieve adhesion within their wet environment.

Changes in Cementation of Reef Building Oysters Transitioning from Larvae to Adults.

Oysters construct extensive reef communities, providing food, protection from storms, and healthy coastlines. We still do not have a clear picture of how these animals attach to surfaces. Efforts described herein provide the first examination of adhesion at the transition from free swimming larvae to initial substrate attachment, through metamorphosis, and on to adulthood. Two different bonding systems were found to coexist. Larvae use an organic, hydrated glue that persists while the animal progresses into the juvenile phase, at which point a very different adhesive emerges. Juveniles bond with an organic-inorganic composite system, positioning the organic component for maximum adhesion by residing between the animal and substrate. Beyond understanding our marine environment, these insights may aid efforts in aquaculture, reef restoration, and adhesive design.