Experiences and Beliefs on Tobacco Use, Cessation in India: A Qualitative Study.

Background: Almost 80% of global tobacco usage is concentrated in low- and-middle-income countries (LMICs) like India. Added to this, there is dearth of dedicated tobacco cessation specialist services in healthcare settings in these regions. Identification of challenges in the delivery of cessation interventions and understanding the experiences of tobacco users will aid in formulating successful quit strategies. Objectives: This qualitative study in India aimed to understand the perspectives of tobacco-using patients in healthcare facilities regarding tobacco use and cessation. Methods: This qualitative study was conducted in urban and rural areas of four study sites, two each in the North and South India. Using purposive sampling, patients who were tobacco users were selected from healthcare facilities. The interviews were transcribed, coded and organised into themes. Analysis was done using NVivo 10 software. Results: A total of 22 in-depth interviews were conducted on participants aged 23 to 80 years who were either current or past tobacco users. A majority of the participants were aware of their increased health risks associated with tobacco consumption and had attempted quitting; however, barriers such as peer influence, formed habit, certain cultural barriers and the addictive nature of nicotine prevented them from successfully quitting. Familial and peer support, the government's role in spreading public awareness, and limiting the sale of tobacco were stated as facilitators for tobacco cessation. Conclusions: The findings of this study point out that despite awareness of the perils of tobacco among smokers, there are various barriers and beliefs related to tobacco use and cessation. These findings would prove advantageous for policy-makers to implement and promote addiction treatment programmes for successful tobacco cessation efforts. In order to optimise strategies, policies must be well informed by ongoing dialogue between the public, service providers and policy-makers.

Cardiac arrhythmia services in Africa from 2011 to 2018: the second report from the Pan African Society of Cardiology working group on cardiac arrhythmias and pacing.

AIMS: Cardiac arrhythmia services are a neglected field of cardiology in Africa. To provide comprehensive contemporary information on the access and use of cardiac arrhythmia services in Africa. METHODS AND RESULTS: Data on human resources, drug availability, cardiac implantable electronic devices (CIED), and ablation procedures were sought from member countries of Pan African Society of Cardiology. Data were received from 23 out of 31 countries. In most countries, healthcare services are primarily supported by household incomes. Vitamin K antagonists (VKAs), digoxin, and amiodarone were available in all countries, while the availability of other drugs varied widely. Non-VKA oral anticoagulants (NOACs) were unequally present in the African markets, while International Normalized Ratio monitoring was challenging. Four countries (18%) did not provide pacemaker implantations while, where available, the implantation and operator rates were 2.79 and 0.772 per million population, respectively. The countries with the highest pacemaker implantation rate/million population in descending order were Tunisia, Mauritius, South Africa, Algeria, and Morocco. Implantable cardioverter-defibrillator and cardiac resynchronization therapy (CRT) were performed in 15 (65%) and 12 (52%) countries, respectively. Reconditioned CIED were used in 5 (22%) countries. Electrophysiology was performed in 8 (35%) countries, but complex ablations only in countries from the Maghreb and South Africa. Marked variation in costs of CIED that severely mismatched the gross domestic product per capita was observed in Africa. From the first report, three countries have started performing simple ablations. CONCLUSION: The access to arrhythmia treatments varied widely in Africa where hundreds of millions of people remain at risk of dying from heart block. Increased economic and human resources as well as infrastructures are the critical targets for improving arrhythmia services in Africa.

Moving Ahead: Building a Strong Network Among Female Cardiovascular Clinician Scientists and Researchers in Africa.

This case reports on the authors' successes building a strong network among female cardiovascular clinician scientists and researchers in Africa provides examples of collaborations and mentorship. (Level of Difficulty: Beginner.).

Global mortality variations in patients with heart failure: results from the International Congestive Heart Failure (INTER-CHF) prospective cohort study.

BACKGROUND: Most data on mortality and prognostic factors in patients with heart failure come from North America and Europe, with little information from other regions. Here, in the International Congestive Heart Failure (INTER-CHF) study, we aimed to measure mortality at 1 year in patients with heart failure in Africa, China, India, the Middle East, southeast Asia and South America; we also explored demographic, clinical, and socioeconomic variables associated with mortality. METHODS: We enrolled consecutive patients with heart failure (3695 [66%] clinic outpatients, 2105 [34%] hospital in patients) from 108 centres in six geographical regions. We recorded baseline demographic and clinical characteristics and followed up patients at 6 months and 1 year from enrolment to record symptoms, medications, and outcomes. Time to death was studied with Cox proportional hazards models adjusted for demographic and clinical variables, medications, socioeconomic variables, and region. We used the explained risk statistic to calculate the relative contribution of each level of adjustment to the risk of death. FINDINGS: We enrolled 5823 patients within 1 year (with 98% follow-up). Overall mortality was 16·5%: highest in Africa (34%) and India (23%), intermediate in southeast Asia (15%), and lowest in China (7%), South America (9%), and the Middle East (9%). Regional differences persisted after multivariable adjustment. Independent predictors of mortality included cardiac variables (New York Heart Association Functional Class III or IV, previous admission for heart failure, and valve disease) and non-cardiac variables (body-mass index, chronic kidney disease, and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease). 46% of mortality risk was explained by multivariable modelling with these variables; however, the remainder was unexplained. INTERPRETATION: Marked regional differences in mortality in patients with heart failure persisted after multivariable adjustment for cardiac and non-cardiac factors. Therefore, variations in mortality between regions could be the result of health-care infrastructure, quality and access, or environmental and genetic factors. Further studies in large, global cohorts are needed. FUNDING: The study was supported by Novartis.

Imbalanced Angiogenesis in Peripartum Cardiomyopathy　- Diagnostic Value of Placenta Growth Factor.

BACKGROUND: Concentrations of the anti-angiogenic factor soluble fms-like tyrosine kinase-1 (sFlt-1) are altered in peripartum cardiomyopathy (PPCM). In this study we investigated changes in the angiogenesis balance in PPCM.Methods and Results:Plasma concentrations of sFlt-1 and the pro-angiogenic placenta growth factor (PlGF) were determined in patients with PPCM during the post-partum phase (n=83), in healthy women at delivery (n=30), and in patients with acute heart failure (AHF; n=65). Women with cardiac failure prepartum or associated with any form of hypertension, including pre-eclampsia, were excluded. Compared with non-pregnant women, in women with AHF and PPCM, median PlGF concentrations were greater (19 [IQR 16-22] and 98 [IQR 78-126] ng/mL, respectively; P<0.001) and the sFlt-1/PlGF ratio was lower (9.8 [6.6-11.3] and 1.2 [0.9-2.8], respectively; P<0.001). The sFlt-1/PlGF ratio was lower in PPCM than in normal deliveries (1.2 [0.9-2.8] vs. 94.8 [68.8-194.1], respectively; P<0.0001). The area under the curve for PlGF (cut-off value: 50ng/mL) and/or the sFlt-1/PlGF ratio (cut-off value: 4) to distinguish PPCM from either normal delivery or AHF was >0.94. Median plasma concentrations of the anti-angiogenic factor relaxin-2 were lower in PPCM and AHF (0.3 [IQR 0.3-1.7] and 0.3 [IQR 0.3-1] ng/mL, respectively) compared with normal deliveries (1,807 [IQR 1,101-4,050] ng/mL; P<0.001). CONCLUSIONS: Plasma of PPCM patients shows imbalanced angiogenesis. High PlGF and/or low sFlt-1/PlGF may be used to diagnose PPCM.

Epidemiology of sudden cardiac death in Cameroon: the first population-based cohort survey in sub-Saharan Africa.

Background: Incidence estimates of sudden cardiac death (SCD) in sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) are unknown. Method: Over 12 months, the household administrative office and health community committee within neighbourhoods in two health areas of Douala, Cameroon, registered all deaths among 86 188 inhabitants aged >18 years. As part of an extended multi-source surveillance system, the Emergency Medical Service (EMS), local medical examiners and district hospital mortuaries were also surveyed. Whereas two physicians investigated every natural death, two cardiologists reviewed all unexpected natural deaths. Results: There were 288 all-cause deaths and 27 (9.4%) were SCD. The crude incidence rate was 31.3 [95% confidence interval (CI): 20.3-40.6]/100 000 person-years. The age-standardized rate by the African standard population was 33.6 (95% CI: 22.4-44.9)/100 000 person-years. Death occurred at night in 37% of cases, including 11% of patients who died while asleep. Out-of-hospital sudden cardiac arrest occurred in 63% of cases, 55.5% of which occurred at home. Of the 88.9% cases of witnessed cardiac arrest, 63% occurred in the presence of a family member and cardiopulmonary resuscitation was attempted only in 3.7%. Conclusion: The burden of SCD in this African population is heavy with distinct characteristics, whereas awareness of SCD and prompt resuscitation efforts appear suboptimal. Larger epidemiological studies are required in SSA in order to implement preventive measures, especially in women and young people.

The causes, treatment, and outcome of pulmonary hypertension in Africa: Insights from the Pan African Pulmonary Hypertension Cohort (PAPUCO) Registry.

BACKGROUND: Epidemiology, aetiology, management and outcome data for various forms of pulmonary hypertension (PH) in Africa are scarce. METHODS: A prospective, multinational cohort registry of 220 consecutive patients (97% of African descent) from 9 specialist centres in 4 African countries. The antecedents, characteristics and management of newly diagnosed PH plus 6-month survival were studied. RESULTS: There were 209 adults (median age 48years [IQR 35, 64]) and 11 children (age range 1 to 17years). Most adults had advanced disease - 66% WHO Functional Class III-IV, median 6-minute walk test distance of 252m (IQR 120, 350) and median right ventricular systolic pressure 58mmHg (IQR 49, 74). Adults comprised 16% pulmonary arterial hypertension, 69% PH due to left heart disease, 11% PH due to lung disease and/or hypoxia, 2% chronic thromboembolic pulmonary hypertension, and 2% PH with unclear multifactorial mechanism. At 6-months, 21% of adults with follow-up data had died. On an adjusted basis (independent of sub-groups) mortality was associated with increasing functional impairment (p=0.021 overall - WHO Class IV versus I, OR 1.68 [95% CI 0.13, 4.36]) and presence of combined right atrial and ventricular hypertrophy (46% - OR 2.88, 95% CI 1.45, 5.72). Children commonly presented with dyspnoea, fatigue, cough, and palpitations with six and three children, respectively diagnosed with concurrent PH associated congenital heart disease and left heart disease. CONCLUSIONS: These data provide new insights into PH from an African perspective, with clear opportunities to improve its prevention, treatment and outcomes. TRIAL REGISTRATION: ClinicalTrials.gov (NCT02265887).

Heart Failure in Africa, Asia, the Middle East and South America: The INTER-CHF study.

BACKGROUND: There are few data on heart failure (HF) patients from Africa, Asia, the Middle East and South America. METHODS: INTER-CHF is a prospective study that enrolled HF patients in 108 centers in 16 countries from 2012 to 2014. Consecutive ambulatory or hospitalized adult patients with HF were enrolled. Baseline data were recorded on sociodemographics, clinical characteristics, HF etiology and treatments. Age- and sex-adjusted results are reported. RESULTS: We recruited 5813 HF patients: mean(SE) age=59(0.2)years, 39% female, 65% outpatients, 31% from rural areas, 26% with HF with preserved ejection fraction, with 1294 from Africa, 2661 from Asia, 1000 from the Middle-East, and 858 from South America. Participants from Africa-closely followed by Asians-were younger, had lower literacy levels, and were less likely to have health or medication insurance or be on beta-blockers compared with participants from other regions, but were most likely to be in NYHA class IV. Participants from South America were older, had higher insurance and literacy levels, and, along with Middle Eastern participants, were more likely to be on beta-blockers, but had the lowest proportion in NYHA IV. Ischemic heart disease was the most common HF etiology in all regions except Africa where hypertensive heart disease was most common. CONCLUSIONS: INTER-CHF describes significant regional variability in socioeconomic and clinical factors, etiologies and treatments in HF patients from Africa, Asia, the Middle East and South America. Opportunities exist for improvement in health/medication insurance rates and proportions of patients on beta blockers, particularly in Africa and Asia.

Hypertension in developing countries.

The past 2 decades have seen a considerable global increase in cardiovascular disease, with hypertension remaining by far the most common. More than one-third of adults in Africa are hypertensive; as in the urban populations of most developing countries. Being a condition that occurs with relatively few symptoms, hypertension remains underdetected in many countries; especially in developing countries where routine screening at any point of health care is grossly underutilized. Because hypertension is directly related to cardiovascular disease, this has led to hypertension being the leading cause of adverse cardiovascular outcomes, as a result of patients living, often unknowingly, with uncontrolled hypertension for prolonged periods of time. In Africa, hypertension is the leading cause of heart failure; whereas at global levels, hypertension is responsible for more than half of deaths from stroke, just less than half of deaths from coronary artery disease, and for more than one-tenth of all global deaths. In this review, we discuss the escalating occurrence of hypertension in developing countries, before exploring the strengths and weaknesses of different measures to control hypertension, and the challenges of adopting these measures in developing countries. On a broad level, these include steps to curb the ripple effect of urbanization on the health and disease profile of developing societies, and suggestions to improve loopholes in various aspects of health care delivery that affect surveillance and management of hypertension. Furthermore, we consider how the industrial sectors' contributions toward the burden of hypertension can also be the source of the solution.

Rationale and design of the Pan African Pulmonary hypertension Cohort (PAPUCO) study: implementing a contemporary registry on pulmonary hypertension in Africa.

INTRODUCTION: Pulmonary hypertension (PH) is a devastating, progressive disease with increasingly debilitating symptoms and usually shortened overall life expectancy due to a narrowing of the pulmonary vasculature and consecutive right heart failure. Little is known about PH in Africa, but limited reports suggest that PH is more prevalent in Africa compared with developed countries due to the high prevalence of risk factors in the region. METHODS AND ANALYSIS: A multinational multicentre registry-type cohort study was established and tailored to resource-constraint settings to describe disease presentation, disease severity and aetiologies of PH, comorbidities, diagnostic and therapeutic management, and the natural course of PH in Africa. PH will be diagnosed by specialist cardiologists using echocardiography (right ventricular systolic pressure >35 mm Hg, absence of pulmonary stenosis and acute right heart failure), usually accompanied by shortness of breath, fatigue, peripheral oedema and other cardiovascular symptoms, ECG and chest X-ray changes in keeping with PH as per guidelines (European Society of Cardiology and European Respiratory Society (ESC/ERS) guidelines). Additional investigations such as a CT scan, a ventilation/perfusion scan or right heart catheterisation will be performed at the discretion of the treating physician. Functional tests include a 6 min walk test and the Karnofsky Performance Score. The WHO classification system for PH will be applied to describe the different aetiologies of PH. Several substudies have been implemented within the registry to investigate specific types of PH and their outcome at up to 24 months. Data will be analysed by an independent institution following a data analyse plan. ETHICS AND DISSEMINATION: All local ethics committees of the participating centres approved the protocol. The data will be disseminated through peer-reviewed journals at national and international conferences and public events at local care providers.

Predictors of outcome in 176 South African patients with peripartum cardiomyopathy.

OBJECTIVE: Identify novel prognostic factors for patients with peripartum cardiomyopathy (PPCM). DESIGN AND SETTING: Prospective cohort study conducted in a single tertiary care centre in South Africa. PATIENTS: 176 African women with newly diagnosed PPCM were studied. INTERVENTIONS: Clinical assessment, echocardiography and laboratory results were obtained at baseline and at 6 months. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Poor outcome was defined as the combined end point of death, left ventricular (LV) ejection fraction (LVEF) < 35%, or remaining in New York Heart Association (NYHA) functional class III/IV at 6 months. Complete LV recovery was defined as LVEF ≥55% at 6 months. RESULTS: Forty-five (26%) patients had a poor outcome. Multiple logistic regression analysis revealed that, after adjustment for age, NYHA functional class, LVEF and systolic blood pressure, increased left ventricular end systolic dimension (LVESD), lower body mass index (BMI) and lower total cholesterol at baseline were independent predictors of poor outcome (adjusted OR 1.09, 95% CI 1.04 to 1.15, p=0.001; OR 0.89, 95% CI 0.83 to 0.96, p=0.004, and OR 0.50, 95% CI 0.34 to 0.73, p=0.0004, respectively). Thirty (21%) of the 141 surviving patients with echocardiographic follow-up recovered LV function at 6 months. Multiple logistic regression analysis revealed that, after adjustment for NYHA functional class, LVEF and left ventricular end diastolic dimension, older age and smaller LVESD at baseline were predictors of LV recovery (OR 1.08, 95% CI 1.01 to 1.17, p=0.02 and OR 0.92, 95% CI 0.86 to 0.98, p=0.007, respectively). CONCLUSIONS: This study suggests that increased LVESD, lower BMI and lower serum cholesterol at baseline may be independent predictors of poor outcome in patients with PPCM, while older age and smaller LVESD at baseline appear to be independently associated with a higher chance of LV recovery.

The 12-lead ECG in peripartum cardiomyopathy.

BACKGROUND: The value of the 12-lead electrocardiogram (ECG) to provide prognostic information in the deadly and disabling syndrome peripartum cardiomyopathy (PPCM) is unknown. AIMS: To determine the prevalence of major and minor ECG abnormalities in PPCM patients at the time of diagnosis, and to establish whether there are ECG correlates of persistent left ventricular dysfunction and/or clinical stability at six months of follow up, where available. METHODS: Twelve-lead ECGs were performed at the point of diagnosis on 78 consecutive women presenting with PPCM to two tertiary centres in South Africa and 44 cases (56%) at the six-month follow up. Blinded Minnesota coding identified major ECG abnormalities and minor ECG changes. RESULTS: The cohort mainly comprised young women of black African ancestry (90%) [mean age 29 ± 7 years and median body mass index 24.3 (IQR: 22.7-27.5) kg/m(2)]. The majority of cases (n = 70; 90%) presented in sinus rhythm (mean heart rate 100 ± 21 beats/min). At baseline, at least one ECG Abnormality/variant was detected in 96% of cases. Major ECG abnormalities and minor changes were detected in 49% (95% CI: 37-60%) and 62% (95% CI: 51-74%) of cases, respectively; the most common being T-wave changes (59%), p-wave abnormality (29%) and QRS-axis deviation (25%). Of the 44 cases (56%) reviewed at six months, normalisation of the 12-lead ECG occurred in 25%; the most labile ECG features being heart rate (mean reduction of 27 beats/min; p < 0.001) and abnormal QRS axis (36 vs 14%; p = 0.014). On an adjusted basis, major T-wave abnormalities on the baseline 12-lead ECG were associated with lower left ventricular ejection fraction (LVEF) at baseline (average of -9%, 95% CI: -1 to -16; p = 0.03) and at six months (-12%; 95% CI: -4 to -24; p = 0.006). Similarly, baseline ST-segment elevation was also associated with lower LVEF at six months (-25%; 95% CI: -0.7 to -50; p = 0.04). CONCLUSIONS: In this unique study, we found that almost all women suffering from PPCM had an 'abnormal' 12-lead ECG. Pending more definitive studies, the ECG appears to be a useful adjunctive tool in both screening and prognostication in resource-poor settings.

HIV-1 infection alters CD4+ memory T-cell phenotype at the site of disease in extrapulmonary tuberculosis.

HIV-1-infected people have an increased risk of developing extrapulmonary tuberculosis (TB), the immunopathogenesis of which is poorly understood. Here, we conducted a detailed immunological analysis of human pericardial TB, to determine the effect of HIV-1 co-infection on the phenotype of Mycobacterium tuberculosis (MTB)-specific memory T cells and the role of polyfunctional T cells at the disease site, using cells from pericardial fluid and blood of 74 patients with (n = 50) and without (n = 24) HIV-1 co-infection. The MTB antigen-induced IFN-γ response was elevated at the disease site, irrespective of HIV-1 status or antigenic stimulant. However, the IFN-γ ELISpot showed no clear evidence of increased numbers of antigen-specific cells at the disease site except for ESAT-6 in HIV-1 uninfected individuals (p = 0.009). Flow cytometric analysis showed that CD4+ memory T cells in the pericardial fluid of HIV-1-infected patients were of a less differentiated phenotype, with the presence of polyfunctional CD4+ T cells expressing TNF, IL-2 and IFN-γ. These results indicate that HIV-1 infection results in altered phenotype and function of MTB-specific CD4+ T cells at the disease site, which may contribute to the increased risk of developing TB at all stages of HIV-1 infection.

Long-term outcome of peripartum cardiomyopathy in a population with high seropositivity for human immunodeficiency virus.

BACKGROUND: Peripartum cardiomyopathy (PPCM) is a rare cardiomyopathy with a high risk of mortality. The present study assessed clinical outcome and mortality over a 2-year period in an African cohort of 80 PPCM patients. METHODS: A prospective study over a 2-year period at a tertiary center, where 80 consecutive women presenting with PPCM were enrolled on first diagnosis. Patients obtained standard heart failure therapy. Detailed assessments included echocardiography, NYHA functional class, left ventricular ejection fraction (LVEF), mortality and serum levels for hemoglobin, CRP, IL-6, TNF-alpha, Fas/Apo-1, and T-cell count at each 6-month intervals for 24 months. RESULTS: Baseline mean age was 30 ± 7 years; 38% were primigravidas and 34% were co-infected with HIV. NYHA functional class III-IV was present in 89% patients with a mean LVEF of 30 ± 9%. Four patients were lost to follow-up, 9 moved to remote areas, 7 were excluded due to subsequent pregnancy. The 2-year mortality rate was 28%. Eight of 80 (10%) died by 6 months. Mean LVEF of surviving patients was: 44 ± 11% at 6-months, 46 ± 13% at 12-months and 50 ± 14% at 24-months follow-up. Of the 69 patients still enrolled at 6 months 14 (20%) died over the remaining 18-month period, despite functional recovery. No statistically significant difference in LVEF and mortality was observed between PPCM patients with or without HIV co-infection. CONCLUSION: The novel finding of this study is the continuous high mortality of PPCM patients occurring beyond 6 months independent of HIV infection and subsequent pregnancy. This finding strongly encourages the need for long-term clinical follow-up and management of women with PPCM.

Evaluation of bromocriptine in the treatment of acute severe peripartum cardiomyopathy: a proof-of-concept pilot study.

BACKGROUND: Peripartum cardiomyopathy (PPCM) is a potentially life-threatening heart disease that occurs in previously healthy women. We identified prolactin, mainly its 16-kDa angiostatic and proapoptotic form, as a key factor in PPCM pathophysiology. Previous reports suggest that bromocriptine may have beneficial effects in women with acute onset of PPCM. METHODS AND RESULTS: A prospective, single-center, randomized, open-label, proof-of-concept pilot study of women with newly diagnosed PPCM receiving standard care (PPCM-Std; n=10) versus standard care plus bromocriptine for 8 weeks (PPCM-Br, n=10) was conducted. Because mothers receiving bromocriptine could not breast-feed, the 6-month outcome of their children (n=21) was studied as a secondary end point. Blinded clinical, hemodynamic, and echocardiographic assessments were performed at baseline and 6 months after diagnosis. Cardiac magnetic resonance imaging was performed 4 to 6 weeks after diagnosis in PPCM-Br patients. There were no significant differences in baseline characteristics, including serum 16-kDa prolactin levels and cathepsin D activity, between the 2 study groups. PPCM-Br patients displayed greater recovery of left ventricular ejection fraction (27% to 58%; P=0.012) compared with PPCM-Std patients (27% to 36%) at 6 months. One patient in the PPCM-Br group died compared with 4 patients in the PPCM-Std group. Significantly fewer PPCM-Br patients (n=1, 10%) experienced the composite end point of poor outcome defined as death, New York Heart Association functional class III/IV, or left ventricular ejection fraction <35% at 6 months compared with the PPCM-Std patients (n=8, 80%; P=0.006). Cardiac magnetic resonance imaging revealed no intracavitary thrombi. Infants of mothers in both groups showed normal growth and survival. CONCLUSIONS: In this trial, the addition of bromocriptine to standard heart failure therapy appeared to improve left ventricular ejection fraction and a composite clinical outcome in women with acute severe PPCM, although the number of patients studied was small and the results cannot be considered definitive. Larger-scale multicenter and blinded studies are in progress to test this strategy more robustly.

Peripartum cardiomyopathy in Africa: challenges in diagnosis, prognosis, and therapy.

Peripartum cardiomyopathy (PPCM) is a form of heart failure affecting women of childbearing age, which can be associated with considerable mortality and chronic debilitating disease. Most patients present with acute postpartal heart failure that resembles the clinical presentation of idiopathic dilated cardiomyopathy. Historically, patients with PPCM have shown high rates of rapid recovery, with 6-month recovery rates averaging at 50%. However, recent prospective long-term follow-up of patients with PPCM in developing societies suggest recovery occurring only well into the second year after diagnosis, and recovery is poorly predicted by baseline left ventricular function. Beyond any potentially inherent factors contributing to poorer outcomes of patients with PPCM in developing societies, prognosis in these settings will continue to lag behind as the challenges faced to optimizing diagnosis remain immense. New insights into the role of inflammatory, apoptotic, and other genetic pathways may improve prognosis through the early detection and more targeted treatment of PPCM.

A time bomb of cardiovascular risk factors in South Africa: results from the Heart of Soweto Study "Heart Awareness Days".

BACKGROUND: There is strong anecdotal evidence that many urban communities in Sub-Saharan Africa are in epidemiologic transition with the subsequent emergence of more affluent causes of heart disease. However, data to describe the risk factor profile of affected communities is limited. METHODS: During 9 community screening days undertaken in the predominantly Black African community of Soweto, South Africa (population 1 to 1.5 million) in 2006-2007, we examined the cardiovascular risk factor profile of volunteers. Screening comprised a combination of self-reported history and a clinical assessment that included calculation of body mass index (BMI), blood pressure and random blood glucose and total cholesterol levels. RESULTS: In total, we screened a total of 1691 subjects (representing almost 0.2% of the total population). The majority (99%) were Black African, there were more women (65%) than men and the mean age was 46+/-14 years. Overall, 78% of subjects were found to have >or=1 major risk factor for heart disease. By far the most prevalent risk factor overall was obesity (43%) with significantly more obese women than men (23% versus 55%: OR 1.76 95% CI 1.62 to 1.91: p<0.001). A further 33% of subjects had high blood pressures (systolic or diastolic) and 13% an elevated (non-fasting) total blood cholesterol level: no statistically significant differences between the sexes were found. There was a positive correlation between increasing BMI and other risk factors including elevated systolic (r(2)=0.046, p<0.001) and diastolic blood pressure (r(2)=0.032, p<0.001) with overweight subjects three times more likely to have concurrent hypercholesterolemia (OR 3.3, 95% CI 2.1 to 5.3: p<0.01). CONCLUSIONS: These unique pilot data strongly suggest a high prevalence of related risk factors for heart disease in this urban black African population in epidemiologic transition. Further research is needed to confirm our findings and to determine their true causes and potential consequences.

Management of peripartum cardiomyopathy.

Peripartum cardiomyopathy (PPCM) is a form of heart failure that occurs in women within 1 month of predelivery and 5 months postdelivery. Echocardiography demonstrates features of cardiomyopathy with impaired ejection fraction; global dilatation and thinned-out walls are sometimes present. The symptoms and signs of PPCM are similar to those in patients with idiopathic dilated cardiomyopathy. The acute form of PPCM is a clinical syndrome, with reduced cardiac output, tissue hypoperfusion, and increase in the pulmonary capillary wedge pressure. Monitoring of the patient with the acute form of PPCM should be initiated as soon as possible. The types and levels of monitoring required for an individual patient vary widely depending on the severity of the cardiac decompensation and response to initial therapy. The syndrome carries a high morbidity and mortality, and diagnosis is often delayed. This review summarizes recent data charting the incidence, recent advances in the understanding of the pathophysiology of PPCM, and outlines the current treatment options available.

Spectrum of heart disease and risk factors in a black urban population in South Africa (the Heart of Soweto Study): a cohort study.

BACKGROUND: The Heart of Soweto Study aims to increase our understanding of the characteristics and burden imposed by heart disease in an urban African community in probable epidemiological transition. We aimed to investigate the clinical range of disorders related to cardiovascular disease in patients presenting for the first time to a tertiary-care centre. METHODS: From Jan 1 to Dec 31, 2006, we recorded data for 4162 patients with confirmed cases of cardiovascular disease (1593 newly diagnosed and 2569 previously diagnosed and under treatment) who attended the cardiology unit at the Chris Hani Baragwanath Hospital in Soweto, South Africa. We developed a prospectively designed registry and gathered detailed clinical data relating to the presentation, investigations, and treatment of all 1593 patients with newly diagnosed cardiovascular disease. FINDINGS: Most patients were black Africans (n=1359 [85%]), and the study population contained more women (n=939 [59%]) than men. Women were slightly younger than were men (mean 53 [SD 16] years vs 55 [15] years; p=0.031), with 399 (25%) patients younger than 40 years. Heart failure was the most common primary diagnosis (704 cases, 44% of total). Moderate to severe systolic dysfunction was evident in 415 (53%) of 844 identified cases of heart failure, 577 (68%) of which were attributable to dilated cardiomyopathy or hypertensive heart disease, or both. Black Africans were more likely to be diagnosed with heart failure than were the rest of the cohort (739 [54%] vs 105 [45%]; odds ratio [OR] 1.46, 95% CI 1.11-1.94; p=0.009) but were less likely to be diagnosed with coronary artery disease (77 [6%] vs 88 [38%]; OR 0.10, 0.07-0.14; p<0.0001). Prevalence of cardiovascular risk factors was very high, with 897 (56%) patients diagnosed with hypertension (190 [44%] of whom were also obese). Only 209 (13%) patients had no identifiable risk factors, whereas 933 (59%) had several risk factors. INTERPRETATION: We noted many threats to the present and future cardiac health of Soweto, including a high prevalence of modifiable risk factors for atherosclerotic disease and a combination of infectious and non-communicable forms of heart disease, with late clinical presentations. Overall, our findings provide strong evidence that epidemiological transition in Soweto, South Africa has broadened the complexity and spectrum of heart disease in this community. This registry will enable continued monitoring of the range of heart disease.