Multidrug-resistant and carbapenemase-producing critical gram-negative bacteria isolated from the intensive care unit environment in Amhara region, Ethiopia.

BACKGROUND: Intensive care units are units where healthcare-associated infections (HAIs) are common and antimicrobial resistance rates are increasing. Microbial contamination in hospital environment plays an important role in the development of HAIs. Intervention-based improvements in infection prevention and control at national and facility level are critical for the containment of antimicrobial resistance and prevention of HAIs. OBJECTIVES: This study aimed to determine the distribution of multidrug-resistant and carbapenemase-producing critical gram negative bacteria (Klebsiella pneumoniae, Escherichia coli, Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Acinetobacter species) and their antibiotic resistance in intensive care unit environmental surfaces at the University of Gondar and Felege Hiwot Comprehensive Specialized Hospitals. METHODS: This was multicenter hospital-based cross sectional study. Environmental samples were swabbed from all intensive care units using a normal saline moistened-sterile cotton tip stick. Bacteria culturing and antibiotic susceptibility testing were performed following standard microbiological techniques. Selected meropenem-resistant isolates were phenotypically assessed for carbapenemase production using modified and simplified carbapenem inactivation methods. RESULTS: From a total of 384 environmental samples analyzed, 126 (32.8%) showed growth and 162 isolates were identified. K. pneumoniae (79/162, 48.8%) was the commonest isolate followed by Acinetobacter species (51/162, 31.5%), E. coli (19/162, 11.7%) and P. aeruginosa (13/162, 8.0%). Multidrug-resistant and carbapenemase-producing isolates were detected on most hospital environment surface types, especially from the baby bed sets and incubators. The most common multidrug-resistant and principal carbapenemase producer was K. pneumoniae, with rates of 71(89.9%) and 24(85.7%), respectively. CONCLUSION: This study revealed the distribution of multidrug-resistant and carbapenemase-producing critical gram negative bacteria in the environment of intensive care unit. Higher detection rate of multidrug-resistant and carbapenemase-producing K. pneumoniae on most environmental surfaces calls for urgent control action and further attention.

Community-based newborn care intervention fidelity and its implementation drivers in South Wollo Zone, North-east Ethiopia.

Community-based newborn care (CBNC) has been implemented in Ethiopia across the maternal, neonatal, and child health continuum of care with the goal of lowering newborn mortality. However, neonatal mortality rate in Ethiopian is among the highest in the world. Why neonatal mortality remains high in the face of such effective interventions is the issue. As a result, the authors claim that it is unknown whether the planned intervention is carried out effectively or not. The purpose of this study was to investigate the fidelity of community-based newborn care intervention and its implementation drivers. Multicenter community-based mixed method study was employed on 898 postpartum women, 16 health extension workers (HEWs) and 10 health posts to evaluate CBNC intervention fidelity. Structured questionnaire and facility audit checklist was used to collect quantitative data. In-depth interview technique was used to explore lived experiences of HEWs on CBNC implementation. CBNC intervention fidelity was computed as a composite index of the product of program coverage, frequency and contents. Multilevel linear regression model with adjusted ß-coefficients at P-value of 0.05 and a 95% confidence interval (CI) were used to declare a significant relation between CBNC intervention fidelity and its implementation drivers. Interpretative phenomenological analysis was employed for qualitative data analysis. CBNC intervention fidelity was found to be 4.5% (95% CI: 3.6-5.4) with only two women received the intervention with full fidelity. The overall CBNC intervention coverage was 38.4% (95% CI: 35.2-41.6). Only 8.1% and 1.5% of women received all CBNC interventions with recommended frequency and content, respectively. HEWs knowledge of danger sign was significant facilitator while lack of: health center's feedback, related short-term training, health development army support, health center staff's technical assistance to HEWs and shortage of medical equipment supply were barriers for CBNC intervention fidelity. In conclusion the CBNC intervention fidelity was too low in this study. This indicates that CBNC intervention package was not implemented as envisioned implying an implementation gap. All implementation drivers were poorly implemented to result in improved fidelity and intervention outcomes.

Spatial distribution of common childhood illnesses, healthcare utilisation and associated factors in Ethiopia: Evidence from 2016 Ethiopian Demographic and Health Survey.

INTRODUCTION: Childhood illnesses, such as acute respiratory illness, fever, and diarrhoea, continue to be public health problems in low-income countries. Detecting spatial variations of common childhood illnesses and service utilisation is essential for identifying inequities and call for targeted actions. This study aimed to assess the geographical distribution and associated factors for common childhood illnesses and service utilisation across Ethiopia based on the 2016 Demographic and Health Survey. METHODS: The sample was selected using a two-stage stratified sampling process. A total of 10,417 children under five years were included in this analysis. We linked data on their common illnesses during the last two weeks and healthcare utilisation were linked to Global Positioning System (GPS) information of their local area. The spatial data were created in ArcGIS10.1 for each study cluster. We applied a spatial autocorrelation model with Moran's index to determine the spatial clustering of the prevalence of childhood illnesses and healthcare utilisation. Ordinary Least Square (OLS) analysis was done to assess the association between selected explanatory variables and sick child health services utilisation. Hot and cold spot clusters for high or low utilisation were identified using Getis-Ord Gi*. Kriging interpolation was done to predict sick child healthcare utilisation in areas where study samples were not drawn. All statistical analyses were performed using Excel, STATA, and ArcGIS. RESULTS: Overall, 23% (95CI: 21, 25) of children under five years had some illness during the last two weeks before the survey. Of these, 38% (95%CI: 34, 41) sought care from an appropriate provider. Illnesses and service utilisation were not randomly distributed across the country with a Moran's index 0.111, Z-score 6.22, P<0.001, and Moran's index = 0.0804, Z-score 4.498, P< 0.001, respectively. Wealth and reported distance to health facilities were associated with service utilisation. Prevalence of common childhood illnesses was higher in the North, while service utilisation was more likely to be on a low level in the Eastern, South-western, and the Northern parts of the country. CONCLUSION: Our study provided evidence of geographic clustering of common childhood illnesses and health service utilisation when the child was sick. Areas with low service utilisation for childhood illnesses need priority, including actions to counteract barriers such as poverty and long distances to services.

Secondary prevention of rheumatic heart disease in Ethiopia: a multicenter study.

BACKGROUND: Ethiopia has a high acute rheumatic fever (ARF) and rheumatic heart disease (RHD) prevalence, and to our knowledge, there are no data on the status of secondary prevention in children with RHD. This study describes the status of secondary RHD prevention. METHODS: A multicenter, prospective study was performed on children aged 5-17 years with RHD in Ethiopia. Good adherence was defined as at least 80% completion of benzathine penicillin (BPG) or oral Amoxicillin within the previous year. The primary outcome measure was adherence to prophylaxis, expressed as a proportion. Socio-demographics, severity of RHD, and ARF recurrence were evaluated. RESULTS: A total of 337 children with a mean age of 12.9 ± 2.6 years were included. The majority (73%) had severe aortic/mitral disease. Participants were on BPG (80%) or Amoxicillin (20%) prophylaxis. Female sex (P = 0.04) use of BPG (0.03) and shorter mean duration of prophylaxis in months (48.5 ± 31.5 vs. 60.7 ± 33, respectively, P < 0.008) predicted good adherence. Running out of medications (35%), interrupted follow-up (27%), and the COVID-19 pandemic (26%) were the most common reasons for missing prophylaxis. Recurrence of ARF was higher in participants on Amoxicillin compared with BPG (40% vs. 16%, P < 0.001) and in those with poor adherence compared with good adherence (36.8% vs. 17.9%, respectively, P = 0.005). Type and duration of prophylaxis (OR 0.5, CI = 0.24, 0.9, P = 0.02; OR = 1.1, CI = 1.1, 1.2, P = 0.04, respectively), and sex (OR = 1.9, CI = 1.1, 3.4, P = 0.03) were independent predictors of poor adherence. CONCLUSION: Poor adherence is prevalent in Ethiopian children living with RHD. Amoxicillin is a suboptimal option for prophylaxis as its use is associated with lower adherence and a higher rate of ARF recurrence.

Magnitude of undernutrition and associated factors among children with cardiac disease at University of Gondar hospital, Ethiopia.

BACKGROUND: Undernutrition and cardiac disease are interconnected in a vicious cycle. Little is known about the effect of undernutrition on cardiac disease among children in low- and middle-income countries (LMICs). This study aimed to assess magnitude of undernutrition and associated factors among children with cardiac disease at University of Gondar hospital, northwest Ethiopia. METHOD: This hospital-based cross-sectional study included children with cardiac disease presenting to the pediatric outpatient clinic at University of Gondar Hospital, Ethiopia. A self-administered questionnaire was administered to participating families, and medical records were reviewed. All participants who fulfill the inclusion criteria were included. Anthropometric measurements were made and the presence of malnutrition was diagnosed according to the WHO criteria. Associated factors of undernutrition analyzed by using binary logistic regression model. Variables with p-value ≤0.2 in bivariate analysis were fitted to the final multivariable analysis and those variables with p-value ≤0.05 were considered as having statistically significant association to the outcome variable. AOR and 95% confidence interval was calculated to assess the strength of association between the variables. RESULT: A total of 269 patients participated in the study. 177 (65.7%) were undernourished, of whom 96 (54.5%) were underweight, 70 (39.7%) were stunted, and 95 (53.9%) were wasted. Pulmonary hypertension (adjusted odds ratio [AOR] = 3.82, 95%CI 1.80-8.10), NYHA/modified Ross class III and IV heart failure (AOR = 4.64, 1.69-12.72) and cardiac chamber enlargement (AOR = 2.91, 1.45-5.66) were associated with undernutrition. CONCLUSION: Undernutrition is common among children with cardiac disease in northern Ethiopia. Children with pulmonary hypertension, high-grade heart failure, and cardiac chamber enlargement may warrant close follow-up for malnutrition.

Pertussis among patients with clinically compatible illness in the Amhara Regional State, Ethiopia.

BACKGROUND: Pertussis is an acute respiratory tract disease caused by Bordetella pertussis. In 2014, 24.1 million pertussis cases, resulting in 160,700 deaths, were estimated to have occurred worldwide. This study aimed to determine the epidemiology of pertussis among patients with clinically compatible illness who visited selected hospitals in the Amhara Regional State of Ethiopia. METHODS: A cross-sectional study design was used to review pertussis patients with clinically compatible illness. Nasopharyngeal swabs were collected from 515 patients from July 2018 through February 2019. DNA was extracted from all nasopharyngeal swabs and samples were analyzed using real-time (RT-) PCR. Crude and adjusted odds ratios with corresponding 95% confidence intervals were estimated using bivariable and multivariable logistic regression analysis, respectively. RESULTS: The overall prevalence of Bordetella species among the study participants was 156 of 515 (30.3%) [95% CI = 26.4-34.6] as determined by Bordetella RT-PCR, including: 65 (41.7%) B. pertussis, 89 (57.1%) indeterminate B. pertussis, one (0.6%) Bordetella holmesii and one (0.6%) Bordetella parapertussis. CONCLUSIONS: This study found that pertussis is potentially endemic and a common health problem among patients visiting health institutions in the Amhara Regional State of Ethiopia. More data regarding pertussis in Ethiopia could inform development of effective prevention strategies.

Caregivers' and Health Extension Workers' Perceptions and Experiences of Outreach Management of Childhood Illnesses in Ethiopia: A Qualitative Study.

INTRODUCTION: Ethiopian Health Extension Workers provide facility-based and outreach services, including home visits to manage sick children, aiming to increase equity in service coverage. Little is known about the scope of the outreach services and caregivers' and health workers' perceptions of these services. We aimed at exploring mothers' and health extension workers' perceptions and experiences of the outreach services provided for the management of childhood illnesses. METHODS: Four focus groups and eight key informant interviews were conducted. A total of 45 community members participated. Interviews were recorded, transcribed verbatim, and translated into English. We applied thematic content analysis, identified challenges in providing outreach services, and suggestions for improvement. We balanced the data collection by selecting half of the participants for interview and focus group discussions from remote areas and the other half from areas closer to the health posts. RESULTS: Mothers reported that health extension workers visited their homes for preventive services but not for managing childhood illnesses. They showed lack of trust in the health workers' ability to treat children at home. The health extension workers reported that they provide sick children treatment during outreach services but also stated that in most cases, mothers visit the health posts when their child is sick. On the other hand, mothers considered distance from home to health post not to be a problem if the quality of services improved. Workload, long distances, and lack of incentives were perceived as demotivating factors for outreach services. The health workers called for support, incentives, and capacity development activities. CONCLUSIONS: Mothers and health extension workers had partly divergent perceptions of whether outreach curative services for children were available. Mothers wanted improvements in the quality of services while health workers requested capacity development and more support for providing effective community-based child health services.

Intervention fidelity and its determinants of focused antenatal care package implementation, in south Wollo zone, Northeast Ethiopia.

BACKGROUND: Focused antenatal care is directed at sustaining maternal health and improving fetal wellbeing to ensure birth of a healthy neonate. Failure to implement focused antenatal care can result in inability to reduce maternal and perinatal morbidity and mortality in low income countries. Due to evidence-practice gaps, however, thousands of maternal, fetal and neonatal lives are still lost every day, mostly from preventable causes. This study aimed to assess focused antenatal care package's intervention fidelity and its determinant factors in South Wollo Zone, Northeast Ethiopia. METHODS: A cross-sectional study design was employed and a total of 898 women who gave birth in the last 6 months prior to data collection were included. Also 16 health extension workers, working in ten selected health posts, were included. Interviews and self-administered questionnaires were used to collect data from mothers and health extension workers. Ten [10] health posts were audited to assess availability and functionality of drugs and supplies to provide focused antenatal care. Mothers were asked whether or not the required level of care was provided. Health extension workers were provided with self-administered questionnaires to assess socio-demographic characteristics, reception of training, facilitation strategies for the implementation of focused antenatal care and ability to classify danger signs. Multilevel linear regression analysis was performed to identify individual and organizational level's factors influencing focused antenatal care package intervention fidelity. RESULTS: Overall weighted average focused antenatal care package intervention fidelity (implemented as intended/planned) was 49.8% (95% CI: 47.7-51.8), which means the average number of focused antenatal care package interventions women received is 49.8%. Health extension workers implemented 55.1% and skilled providers (nurses, midwives, health officers or medical doctors) 44.9% of focused antenatal care package interventions. Overall antenatal care coverage, irrespective of frequency (at least one visit), was 752/898 women (83.7%; 95% CI: 81.3-86.1); 263/752 women (35.0%; 95% CI: 31.6-38.4) received at least four antenatal visits and only 46/752 women (6.1%; 95% CI: 4.4-7.8) received all recommended components of focused antenatal care. Previous pregnancy-related problems, paternal education and implementation of facilitation strategies were found to be significant factors enhancing focused antenatal care package intervention fidelity. CONCLUSION: Focused antenatal care package intervention fidelity in the study area was low; this may imply that the current level of maternal, perinatal and neonatal mortality might be partly due to the low level of focused antenatal care intervention fidelity. Improving implementation of facilitation strategies is highly required to contribute to the reduction of those mortalities.

Distance, difference in altitude and socioeconomic determinants of utilisation of maternal and child health services in Ethiopia: a geographic and multilevel modelling analysis.

OBJECTIVE: We assessed whether geographic distance and difference in altitude between home to health facility and household socioeconomic status were associated with utilisation of maternal and child health services in rural Ethiopia. DESIGN: Household and health facility surveys were conducted from December 2018 to February 2019. SETTING: Forty-six districts in the Ethiopian regions: Amhara, Oromia, Tigray and Southern Nations, Nationalities, and Peoples. PARTICIPANTS: A total of 11 877 women aged 13-49 years and 5786 children aged 2-59 months were included. OUTCOME MEASURES: The outcomes were four or more antenatal care visits, facility delivery, full child immunisation and utilisation of health services for sick children. A multilevel analysis was carried out with adjustments for potential confounding factors. RESULTS: Overall, 39% (95% CI: 35 to 42) women had attended four or more antenatal care visits, and 55% (95% CI: 51 to 58) women delivered at health facilities. One in three (36%, 95% CI: 33 to 39) of children had received full immunisations and 35% (95% CI: 31 to 39) of sick children used health services. A long distance (adjusted OR (AOR)=0.57; 95% CI: 0.34 to 0.96) and larger difference in altitude (AOR=0.34; 95% CI: 0.19 to 0.59) were associated with fewer facility deliveries. Larger difference in altitude was associated with a lower proportion of antenatal care visits (AOR=0.46; 95% CI: 0.29 to 0.74). A higher wealth index was associated with a higher proportion of antenatal care visits (AOR=1.67; 95% CI: 1.02 to 2.75) and health facility deliveries (AOR=2.11; 95% CI: 2.11 to 6.48). There was no association between distance, difference in altitude or wealth index and children being fully immunised or seeking care when they were sick. CONCLUSION: Achieving universal access to maternal and child health services will require not only strategies to increase coverage but also targeted efforts to address the geographic and socioeconomic differentials in care utilisation, especially for maternal health. TRIAL REGISTRATION NUMBER: ISRCTN12040912.

Management of fast breathing pneumonia in young infants aged 7 to 59 days by community level health workers: protocol for a multi-centre cluster randomized controlled trial.

BACKGROUND: WHO does not recommend community-level health workers (CLHWs) using integrated community case management (iCCM) to treat 7-59 days old infants with fast breathing with oral amoxicillin, whereas World Health Organization (WHO) integrated management of childhood illness (IMCI) recommends it. We want to collect evidence to help harmonization of both protocols. METHODS: A cluster, randomized, open-label trial will be conducted in Africa and Asia (Ethiopia, Malawi, Bangladesh and India) using a common protocol with the same study design, inclusion criteria, intervention, comparison, and outcomes to contribute to the overall sample size. This trial will also identify hypoxaemia in young infants with fast breathing. CLHWs will assess infants for fast breathing, which will be confirmed by a study supervisor. Enrolled infants in the intervention clusters will be treated with oral amoxicillin, whereas in the control clusters they will be managed as per existing iCCM protocol. An independent outcome assessor will assess all enrolled infants on days 6 and 14 of enrolment for the study outcomes in both intervention and control clusters. Primary outcome will be clinical treatment failure by day 6. This trial will obtain approval from the WHO and site institutional ethics committees. CONCLUSIONS: If the research shows that CLHWs can effectively and safely treat fast breathing pneumonia in 7-59 days old young infants, it will increase access to pneumonia treatment substantially for infants living in communities with poor access to health facilities. Additionally, this evidence will contribute towards the review of the current iCCM protocol and its harmonization with IMCI protocol. TRIAL REGISTRATION: The trial is registered at AZNCTR International Trial Registry as ACTRN12617000857303.

Bacterial Isolates and Resistance Patterns in Preterm Infants with Sepsis in Selected Hospitals in Ethiopia: A Longitudinal Observational Study.

Background: Neonatal sepsis is the third leading cause of neonatal mortality, behind prematurity and intrapartum-related complications. The main objectives of this study are to assess the proportion of sepsis in preterm newborns and identify the etiologic agents and their antibiotic sensitivity patterns. Methods: A longitudinal observational study was done from July 2016 to May 2018. Whenever clinical diagnosis of sepsis was made, blood cultures and antibiotic susceptibility tests were done. Result: We did 690 blood cultures, 255 (36.9%) showing bacterial growth. The most commonly isolated bacteria were Klebsiella species 78 (36.6%), Coagulase negative Staphylococcus 42 (19.7%) and Staphylococcus aureus 39 (18.3%). Gram-positive bacteria showed high resistance to penicillin (98.9%) and ceftriaxone (91.3%) whereas Gram-negative bacteria were highly resistant to gentamicin (83.2%) and ceftriaxone (83.2%). Conclusion: Resistance to the more commonly used antibiotics such as ampicillin and gentamycin was very high, necessitating reconsideration of the empiric use of these antibiotics.

Minimally Invasive Tissue Sampling in Preterm Deaths: A Validation Study.

Uncertainty about the causes of neonatal deaths impedes achieving global health targets to reduce mortality. Complete diagnostic autopsy (CDA) is the gold standard to determine cause of death. However, it is often difficult to perform in high-burden, low-income settings. Validations of more feasible methods to determine cause of death are needed. This prospective, multi-center study in Ethiopia assessed the validity of the minimally invasive tissue sampling (MITS) approach to contribute to causes of death in preterm neonates compared to CDA. The MITS and CDA of 105 cases were reviewed. The MITS sampling success for lungs and liver was 100% and 84%, respectively. The kidney and brain had sampling successes of 58% each. MITS showed good agreement with CDA for the diagnosis of hyaline membrane disease (kappa = 0.78), and moderate to substantial agreement for pneumonia and pulmonary hemorrhage (kappa = 0.59 and 0.68, respectively). Even though CDA is the gold standard in identifying the cause of death, we believe that the MITS method can be a useful alternative method in supporting determination of cause of death in low-resource settings.

Genotyping of enteroviruses and human parechoviruses highlights their diversity in Northwest Ethiopia.

Enteroviruses (EVs) and human parechoviruses (HPeVs) infections are associated with various forms of disease, including gastroenteritis. As information on the molecular epidemiology of these viruses is limited in Ethiopia, the genetic diversity of EV and HPeV was investigated in the Northwestern part of the country. Of the total 450 stool samples obtained from infants and young children with diarrhea, 157 (34.9%) were positive for EV and 49 (10.9%) for HPeV RNA when tested by real-time reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction. Genotyping was performed by sequencing of the EV VP1 gene and the HPeV VP3/VP1 gene, respectively. Genotyping of EV was successful in 118 samples. Thereof, 82 (69.5%) belonged to non-polio EVs as a broad range of genotypes within species C, B, and A. Sabin polioviruses were found in 36 cases. HPeV sequences were also heterogeneous with a relative dominance of genotype 3. In conclusion, diverse EV and HPeV genotypes were found cocirculating in Northwest Ethiopia. The findings highlight the importance of continuous surveillance of these viruses in Ethiopia.

Proportion of Streptococcus agalactiae vertical transmission and associated risk factors among Ethiopian mother-newborn dyads, Northwest Ethiopia.

Group B Streptococcus (GBS) vertical transmission causes fetal and neonatal colonization and diseases. However, there is scarcity of data in low-income countries including Ethiopia. We conducted a cross-sectional study on 98 GBS positive mothers, and their newborns to find proportion of vertical transmission. GBS was identified from swabs by using recommended methods and vertical transmission at birth was confirmed by the culture of body surface swabs of newborns within 30 minutes following birth. GBS positivity among swabbed specimens collected for other purposes was 160/1540 (10.4%); 98 were from 385 recto-vaginal swabs of pregnant women, and 62 were from 1,155 swabs of the 385 births. Of the 98 GBS positive cases, 62 newborns were GBS colonized with vertical transmission proportion of 63.3%(95% CI: 54.1-72.4%). We identified that the proportion of vertical transmission in this study was within the range of other many global studies, but higher than recently published data in Ethiopia. Maternal educational level, employment and lower ANC visit were significantly associated risk factors to GBS vertical transmission. Efforts need to be made to screen pregnant women during antenatal care and to provide IAP to GBS positive cases to reduce mother to newborn vertical transmission.

Molecular characterization of Streptococcus agalactiae isolated from pregnant women and newborns at the University of Gondar Comprehensive Specialized Hospital, Northwest Ethiopia.

BACKGROUND: Streptococcus agalctiae (Group B Streptococcus, GBS) is a perinatal pathogen and a leading cause of neonatal infections worldwide. Serotype, sequence type, clonality, antibiotic resistance genes and surface protein profiles of GBS are scarce in Ethiopia, a reason that this study was planned to investigate. . METHODS: Sixteen colonizing GBS isolates obtained from recto-vaginal swabs of pregnant women and body surfaces of newborns were further analyzed. Minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) test, and whole genome sequence (WGS) methods were done for antibiotic susceptibility test, and molecular characterization of the isolates. RESULTS: All the GBS isolates analyzed were belonged to four capsular serotypes: II, 11/16(68.8%), V, 3/16(18.8%), Ia and VI each with 1/16(6.3%) and five sequence type (ST-2, ST-10, ST-14, ST-569 and ST-933). Sequence type-10 was the most predominant ST followed by ST-569. The five STs were grouped into the four clonal complexes (CC - 1, CC-10, CC-19, and CC-23). Different surface proteins and pili families such as ALP1, ALPHA, ALP23, PI-1 / PI-2A1, PI-1 / PI-2B, and Srr1 were detected from WGS data. All isolates were found to be susceptible to the tested antibiotics except for tetracycline in MIC and WGS test methods used. Tetracycline resistant determinant genes such as TETM and TETL / TETM combination were identified. CONCLUSION: Further studies on serotype and molecular epidemiology will provide a comprehensive data of the GBS capsular serotype and clones available in Ethiopia.

Geographic differences in maternal and child health care utilization in four Ethiopian regions; a cross-sectional study.

BACKGROUND: Maternal and child health (MCH) care utilization often vary with geographic location. We analyzed the geographic distribution and determinants of utilization of four or more antenatal care visits, health facility delivery, child immunization, and care utilization for common childhood illnesses across four Ethiopian regions. METHODS: A cross-sectional community-based study was employed with two-staged stratified cluster sampling in 46 districts of Ethiopia. A total of 6321 women (13-49 years) and 3110 children below the age of 5 years residing in 5714 households were included. We performed a cluster analysis of the selected MCH care utilization using spatial autocorrelation. We identified district-specific relationships between care coverage and selected factors using geocoded district-level data and ordinary least squares and hotspot analysis using Getis Ord Gi*. RESULTS: Of the 6321women included in the study, 714 had a live birth in the 12 months before the survey. One-third of the women (30, 95% CI 26-34) had made four or more antenatal visits and almost half of the women (47, 95% CI 43-51) had delivered their most recent child at a health facility. Nearly half of the children (48, 95% CI 40-57) with common childhood illnesses (suspected pneumonia, diarrhoea, or fever) sought care at the health facilities. The proportion of fully immunized children was 41% (95%, CI 37-45). Institutional delivery was clustered at district level (spatial autocorrelation, Moron's I = 0.217, P < 0.01). Full immunization coverage was also spatially clustered (Moron's I = 0.156, P-value < 0.1). Four or more antenatal visits were associated with women's age and parity, while the clustering of institutional delivery was associated with the number of antenatal care visits. Clustering of full immunization was associated with household members owning a mobile phone. CONCLUSIONS: This study showed evidence for geographic clustering in coverage of health facility deliveries and immunization at the district level, but not in the utilization of antenatal care and utilization of health services for common childhood illnesses. Identifying and improving district-level factors that influenced these outcomes may inform efforts to achieve geographical equitability and universal health coverage.

Major causes of death in preterm infants in selected hospitals in Ethiopia (SIP): a prospective, cross-sectional, observational study.

BACKGROUND: Neonatal deaths now account for 47% of all deaths in children younger than 5 years globally. More than a third of newborn deaths are due to preterm birth complications, which is the leading cause of death. Understanding the causes and factors contributing to neonatal deaths is needed to identify interventions that will reduce mortality. We aimed to establish the major causes of preterm mortality in preterm infants in the first 28 days of life in Ethiopia. METHODS: We did a prospective, cross-sectional, observational study in five hospitals in Ethiopia. Study participants were preterm infants born in the study hospitals at younger than 37 gestational weeks. Infants whose gestational age could not be reliably estimated and those born as a result of induced abortion were excluded from the study. Data were collected on maternal and obstetric history, clinical maternal and neonatal conditions, and laboratory investigations. For neonates who died of those enrolled, consent was requested from parents for post-mortem examinations (both complete diagnostic autopsy and minimally invasive tissue sampling). An independent panel of experts established the primary and contributory causes of preterm mortality with available data. FINDINGS: Between July 1, 2016, to May 31, 2018, 4919 preterm infants were enrolled in the study and 3852 were admitted to neonatal intensive care units. By 28 days of post-natal age, 1109 (29%) of those admitted to the neonatal intensive care unit died. Complete diagnostic autopsy was done in 441 (40%) and minimally invasive tissue sampling in 126 (11%) of the neonatal intensive care unit deaths. The main primary causes of death in the 1109 infants were established as respiratory distress syndrome (502 [45%]); sepsis, pneumonia and meningitis (combined as neonatal infections; 331 [30%]), and asphyxia (151 [14%]). Hypothermia was the most common contributory cause of preterm mortality (770 [69%]). The highest mortality occurred in infants younger than 28 weeks of gestation (89 [86%] of 104), followed by infants aged 28-31 weeks (512 [54%] of 952), 32-34 weeks (349 [18%] of 1975), and 35-36 weeks (159 [8%] of 1888). INTERPRETATION: Three conditions accounted for 89% of all deaths among preterm infants in Ethiopia. Scale-up interventions are needed to prevent or treat these conditions. Further research is required to develop effective and affordable interventions to prevent and treat the major causes of preterm death. FUNDING: Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation.

Streptococcus agalactiae from Ethiopian pregnant women; prevalence, associated factors and antimicrobial resistance: alarming for prophylaxis.

BACKGROUND: Maternal Streptococcus agalactiae (Group B Streptococcus, GBS) colonization rates and its antibiotic resistance patterns provide important information useful in guiding prevention strategies. There is a paucity of evidence about GBS in the Amhara National Regional State, Ethiopia. OBJECTIVE: To determine colonization prevalence, associated risk factors, and antibiotics resistance including inducible clindamycin resistance patterns of GBS among Ethiopian pregnant women. METHODS: A prospective cross-sectional study was conducted from 1st December 2016 to 30th November 2017 at the University of Gondar Referral hospital delivery ward. Combined recto-vaginal swabs were collected from 385 pregnant women and analyzed at the University of Gondar Bacteriology Laboratory by using LIM broth and 5% defibrinated sheep blood agar culture methods. Isolates were identified by using colony morphology, gram reaction, hemolysis, and CAMP test. Antibiotic susceptibility test was done using the disc diffusion method. Double disc diffusion method was used to identify inducible clindamycin resistance isolates. Data were analyzed by SPSS version 20 software. p ≤ 0.05 was considered as statistically significant. RESULTS: The overall prevalence of maternal GBS colonization was 25.5% (95% CI 21-29.5%). Experiencing meconium stained amniotic fluid (AOR = 3.018, 95% CI 1.225, 7.437), and longer duration of premature rupture of membrane (AOR = 1.897, 95% CI 1.014, 3.417) were statistically significant to maternal colonization. Furthermore, GBS resistant to 0 (8.2%), 1 (25.5%) and 3 (39.8%) or more antibiotics were identified. A D-test showed 15.2% inducible clindamycin resistant GBS. Constitutive macrolide lincosamide-streptograminB, L-, and M-phenotypes were also detected. CONCLUSIONS: Maternal GBS colonization rate in this study was higher compared to the previous reports in Ethiopia. This much prevalence and antibiotics resistance results are the clue to which attention shall be given to this bacterium during management of pregnant women and the newborns.

Newborn colonization and antibiotic susceptibility patterns of Streptococcus agalactiae at the University of Gondar Referral Hospital, Northwest Ethiopia.

BACKGROUND: Group B Streptococcus (GBS) that asymptomatically colonizing the recto-vaginal area of women is the most important cause of neonatal colonization. There is paucity of evidence about newborn colonization with GBS in Ethiopia. Thus, this study was aimed to determine the prevalence of newborn colonization with GBS, antibiotic susceptibility patterns of the isolates and associated risk factors at the University of Gondar Referral Hospital in Northwest Ethiopia METHODS: A prospective cross sectional study was conducted from December 2016 to November 2017. A total of 1,155 swabs from nasal, ear and umbilical areas of the newborns were collected from the 385 newborns. Identifications of the isolates and antibiotic susceptibility testing were done by using conventional methods. RESULTS: Sixty two (16.1%, 95% CI: 12.2% - 20%) of the newborns were colonized by GBS. Seven percent of the total specimens were positive for GBS. The antibiotics susceptibility rates of GBS (average of the three body sites tested) were 95.1%, 89.6%, 88.9%, 85.7%, 85.3%, 81.3%, 76.9%, 76.1%, 73.8%, and 34.4% to ampicillin, penicillin, ciprofloxacin, chloramphenicol, vancomycin, azitromycin, erythromycin, clindamycin, ceftriaxone, and tetracycline, respectively. A multilogistic regression analyses were shown that the newborns that were from mothers whose education status was below tertiary level, and newborns from mothers who were: being employed, being nullipara and multigravida were at risk for colonization with GBS. CONCLUSION: Prevalence of neonatal colonization with GBS was higher than it was reported in three decades ago in Ethiopia. Ciprofloxacin, chloramphenicol, vancomycin and azithromycin were identified as the drug of choice next to ampicillin and penicillin.

Prevalence and determinants of contraceptive utilization among married women at Dabat Health and Demographic Surveillance System site, northwest Ethiopia.

BACKGROUND: Despite the enormous benefits of family planning services, the contraceptive utilization still remains low in Sub-Saharan Africa. There is regional variation in modern contraceptive utilization in Ethiopia. Therefore, this study was aimed to determine the prevalence of modern contraceptive utilization and determinants in Dabat demographic and health surveillance system site, northwest Ethiopia. METHODS: A re-census was carried out in Dabat Health and Demographic Surveillance System (HDSS) site from October to December 2014. Data of 8271 married women collected in the re-census was used. The outcome variable was current utilization of any modern contraceptive methods whereas socio demographic and economic variables were the potential determinants considered. Bi-variable and multivariable binary logistic regression along with odds ratio and 95% confidence interval were used to describe the strength of association. RESULTS: Prevalence of modern contraceptive utilization among married women in Dabat DHSS site was found to be 32.5% (95%CI: 31.5, 33.5%). After adjusting for covariates; the odds of using modern contraceptive were 2.35 times, 1.91 times, and 1.39 times higher among women of secondary and above educational level, urban residents, and women having six and above living children, respectively. CONCLUSION: Modern contraceptive utilization was found to be very low. Effort has to be applied to improve women's educational level that increases their understanding of reproductive health issues. It is also important to give special emphasis for rural residents, those aged 20-40 years, and those with six or more living children while serving for modern contraceptive methods.