Prolonged liver fluke infection combined with alcoholization: An experimental mouse model.

Liver fluke infections disrupt the bile-excreting function of the human liver. Worldwide, excessive alcohol consumption also leads primarily to liver diseases. Our aim was to comprehensively assess the liver state in mice in parallel with the characterization of inflammation when the two adverse factors were combined. C57BL/6 mice were used for the experimental modeling; half of them beforehand were gradually accustomed to consumption of increasing doses of ethanol (from 5% to 20%). Then, half of the animals in each subgroup was infected with Opisthorchis felineus helminths. Finally, the infected (OF), 20% ethanol-consuming (Eth), and subjected to both factors (Eth + OF) mice were compared with no-treatment control. In OF and especially Eth + OF mice, relative liver weight was greater, activities of alanine aminotransferase and aspartate aminotransferase were higher, and bile ducts were considerably enlarged. Eth + OF mice contained noticeably more helminths in the liver than OF mice did. Massive cholangiofibrosis and periductal fibrosis were noted in the liver of the infected mice, especially Eth + OF ones. The liver fluke infection caused inflammatory infiltration and bile duct proliferation. Splenomegaly due to structural changes in the spleen as well as increased levels of interleukin 6 and leukocyte and monocyte counts in the blood reflected substantial inflammation in Eth + OF mice. Thus, in the proposed experimental model, it is shown that a double hit to the liver, i.e., the combination of O. felineus infection with prolonged alcoholization, can be detrimental to both the liver and whole body.

Cell Differentiation and Proliferation in the Bone Marrow and Other Organs of 2D2 Mice during Spontaneous Development of EAE Leading to the Production of Abzymes.

The exact cellular and molecular mechanisms of multiple sclerosis and other autoimmune diseases have not been established. Autoimmune pathologies are known to be associated with faults in the immune system and changes in the differentiation profiles of bone marrow stem cells. This study analyzed various characteristics of experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE) in 2D2 mice. Differentiation profiles of six hematopoietic stem cells of bone marrow were found to significantly differ in 2D2 male and female mice during the spontaneous development of EAE. In addition, we found various properties of B and T cells, CD4+ and CD8+ lymphocytes in blood and several organs (bone marrow, spleen, thymus, and lymph nodes) of 2D2 male and female mice to be considerably different. These changes in hematopoietic stem cells differentiation profiles and level of lymphocyte proliferation in various organs of 2D2 mice were found to induce the production of IgGs against DNA, myelin basic protein, and myelin oligodendrocyte glycoprotein, increasing the number of autoantibodies hydrolyzing these substrates. We compared the changes of these immunological and biochemical parameters in 2D2 mice with those of mice of two other lines (Th and C57BL/6), also prone to spontaneous development of EAE. Some noticeable and even extreme variations were found in the time-related development of parameters between male and female mice of 2D2, Th, and C57BL/6 lines. Despite some differences, mice of all three lines demonstrated the changes in hematopoietic stem cells profiles, lymphocyte content, and production of catalytic autoantibodies. Given that these changes are harmful to mice, we believe them to cause the development of experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis.

Catalytic antibodies in the bone marrow and other organs of Th mice during spontaneous development of experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis associated with cell differentiation.

Exact mechanisms of autoimmune disease development are still yet unknown. However, it is known that the development of autoimmune diseases is associated with defects in the immune system, namely, the violation of the bone marrow hematopoietic stem cells (HSCs) differentiation profiles. Different characteristics of autoimmune reaction development in experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE) prone Th mice characterizing T-lymphocytes response were analyzed using standard approaches. Profiles of several HSCs differentiation of bone marrow (BFU-E, CFU-E, CFU-GM, CFU-GEMM, T- and B-lymphocytes) of Th male and female mice during spontaneous development of EAE were noticeably different. Patterns of total lymphocytes, B- and T-cells proliferation in several different organs (bone marrow, blood, spleen, thymus, and lymph nodes) were also remarkably different. In addition, there were in time noticeable differences in their changes for some organs of male and female mice. Characters of changes in the profiles of CD4 and CD8 cells proliferation in some organs not always coincide with those for total T lymphocytes. The changes in the differentiation profiles of HSCs and the level of lymphocytes proliferation in the bone marrow and other organs were associated with the increase in the concentration of antibodies against DNA, myelin basic protein, and myelin oligodendrocyte glycoprotein, and catalytic antibodies hydrolyzing these substrates. Despite some differences in changes in the analyzed parameters, in general, the spontaneous development of EAE in male and female mice occurs to some extent in a comparable way.

The association between EAE development in mice and the production of autoantibodies and abzymes after immunization of mice with different antigens.

We have previously shown that immunization of C57BL/6 mice, prone to spontaneous development of experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE), with three antigens (MOG35-55 , DNA-histone complex or DNA-methylated BSA complex), alters the differentiation profiles of bone marrow haematopoietic stem cells (HSCs). These are associated with the production of autoantibodies (auto-Abs) against these antigens and the formation of abzymes hydrolysing DNA, MOG, myelin basic protein (MBP) and histones. Immunization of mice with antigens accelerates the development of EAE. This work is the first to analyse the ratio of auto-Abs without and with catalytic activities at different stages of EAE development (onset, acute and remission phases) after immunization of mice with the three specific antigens. Prior to immunization and during spontaneous in-time development of EAE, the concentration of auto-Abs against MBP, MOG, histones and DNA and activities of IgG antibodies in the hydrolysis of substrates increased in parallel; correlation coefficients = +0.69-0.94. After immunization with MOG, DNA-histone complex or DNA-met-BSA complex, both positive (from +0.13 to +0.98) and negative correlations (from -0.09 to -0.69) were found between these values. Our study is the first showing that depending on the antigen, the relative amount of harmful auto-Abs without and abzymes with low or high catalytic activities may be produced only at onset and in acute or remission phases of EAE. The antigen governs the EAE development rate, whereby the ratio of auto-Abs without catalytic activity and with enzymatic activities of harmful abzymes hydrolysing MBP, MOG, histones and DNA varies strongly between different disease phases.

Production of Abzymes in Th, CBA, and C57BL/6 Mice before and after MOG Treatment: Comparing Changes in Cell Differentiation and Proliferation.

Till yet there is no data concerning mechanisms of autoimmune diseases development. Experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE) prone C57BL/6 (T- and B-lymphocyte response), non-autoimmune CBA, and Th mice with T cell response were immunized with myelin oligodendrocyte glycoprotein (MOG35-55) to compare different characteristics of autoimmune reaction development. Bone marrow differentiation profiles of hematopoietic stem cells (HSCs), lymphocyte proliferation in various organs associated with the production of antibodies against DNA, myelin basic protein (MBP), and MOG, as well as abzymes hydrolyzing these antigens, were analyzed before and after immunization. Profiles of HSC differentiation [BFU-E (erythroid burst-forming unit (early erythroid colonies), CFU-E (erythroid burst-forming unit (late erythroid colonies), CFU-GM (granulocytic-macrophagic colony-forming unit), and CFU-GEMM granulocytic-erythroid-megakaryocytic-macrophagic colony-forming unit] and patterns of lymphocyte proliferation in different organs (brain, spleen, thymus, and lymph nodes) were very different for C57BL/6, CBA, and Th mice. We conclude that only C57BL/6 mice were predisposed to spontaneous and MOG-induced acceleration of EAE development. CBA mice are not prone to the development of autoimmune reactions. After immunization, Th mice demonstrate changes in several parameters similar to C57BL/6 and other to CBA mice; Th mice are more prone to developing autoimmune reactions than CBA mice. Our data may be important for understanding the combined presence in mice lymphocytes with T and B cell responses for spontaneous and induced autoimmune diseases.

Anti-inflammatory Effects of Variola Virus TNF Decoy Receptor in an Experimental Model of Contact Dermatitis.

BACKGROUND: Large DNA poxviruses encode a diverse family of secreted proteins that modulate host inflammatory and antiviral responses, in particular by inhibiting one of the key players of the mammalian immune system, the tumor necrosis factor (TNF). METHODS: We investigated the effects of a recombinant variola (smallpox) virus TNF-decoy receptor (VARV-CrmB) in a murine model of contact dermatitis. Our results demonstrate that the VARV-CrmB protein significantly reduces the 2,4-dinitrochlorbenzene (DNCB)-induced migration of skin leukocytes during the sensitization phase and suppresses ear oedema during the elicitation phase of the contact reaction. RESULTS: Studies focusing on the bone marrow hematopoiesis in the contact dermatitis model revealed that the epicutaneous co-application of DNCB and VARV-CrmB protein normalized the DNCBinduced effects to control levels. CONCLUSION: As an effective TNF antagonist, the VARV-CrmB protein might be conceived as a beneficial candidate for further research and development of therapeutic approaches in the field of the inflammatory skin diseases.

Changes in cell differentiation and proliferation lead to production of abzymes in EAE mice treated with DNA-Histone complexes.

Experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE)-prone C57BL/6 mice are used as a model of human multiple sclerosis. We immunize mice with myelin oligodendrocyte glycoprotein (MOG), DNA-histone and DNA-methylated bovine serum albumin (met-BSA) complexes to reveal different characteristics of EAE development including bone marrow lymphocyte proliferation and differentiation profiles of hematopoietic stem cells. Immunization of C57BL/6 mice with MOG35-55 results in the acceleration of EAE development. Anti-DNA antibodies are usually directed against DNA-histone complexes resulting from cell apoptosis. During the acute EAE phase (7-20 days after immunization), catalytic antibodies efficiently hydrolysing myelin basic protein (MBP), MOG and DNA are produced with parallel suppression of antibodies hydrolysing histones. We could show that in contrast to MOG, immunization with histone-DNA results in a reduction of proteinuria, a significant increase in anti-DNA, anti-MBP and anti-MOG antibody titres, as well as an increase in their catalytic activities for antigen hydrolysis, but slightly changes the concentration of cytokines. Contrary to MOG, DNA-histone and DNA-met-BSA only stimulated the formation of anti-DNA antibodies hydrolysing DNA with a long delay (15-20 days after immunization). Our data indicate that for C57BL/6 mice immunization with DNA-met-BSA and DNA-histone complexes may have opposing effects compared to MOG. DNA-histone stimulates the appearance of histone-hydrolysing abzymes in the acute EAE phase, while abzymes with DNase activity appear at significantly later time-points. We conclude that MOG, DNA-histone and DNA-met-BSA have different effects on numerous bone marrow, cellular, immunological and biochemical parameters of immunized mice, but all antigens finally significantly stimulate the development of the EAE.

Social defeat stress exacerbates the blood abnormalities in Opisthorchis felineus-infected mice.

A model of chronic opisthorchiasis combined with social stress is examined; this situation is more likely for humans and animals than a separate impact of the infectious factor. For this purpose, we evaluated the effects of Opisthorchis felineus ("OP" group) and 30-day social stress (confrontations between males, "SS" group) alone and in combination ("OP + SS" group) in inbred C57BL/6 male mice and compared these effects according to the parameters listed below. The animals exposed to neither factor formed the control group ("CON"). All animals were assayed for blood biochemical parameters, changes in blood cell composition, and pattern of bone marrow hematopoiesis. By the end of the experiment, we have observed crucial effects of the two factors on the blood and liver of "OP" and "OP + SS". Eosinophil and basophil counts increased and relative segmented neutrophil and monocyte counts decreased in "OP + SS" mice on the background of activated myelopoiesis, mainly determined by social stress. Despite depressed erythropoiesis, "OP" mice displayed no changes in the relative peripheral erythrocyte counts. On the contrary, social stress, which stimulated erythropoiesis in "SS" and "OP + SS" mice, was accompanied by a decrease in the relative erythrocyte counts and hematocrit. Hepatosplenomegaly was observed on the background of these two impacts. Changes in transaminase (ALT and AST) and alkaline phosphatase activities as well as an increase in cholesterol and product of lipid peroxidation suggest a pronounced destruction of the liver. Altogether, social stress exacerbates many of the assayed blood parameters in the mice infected with the liver fluke.

Changes in haematopoietic progenitor colony differentiation and proliferation and the production of different abzymes in EAE mice treated with DNA.

Immunization of experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE)-prone C57BL/6 mice with MOG35-55 (a model used to study aspects of human multiple sclerosis) is known to lead to the production of various abzymes. The production of catalytic IgGs that can efficiently hydrolyse myelin basic protein (MBP), MOG and DNA is associated with changes in the profile of differentiation and level of proliferation of mice bone marrow haematopoietic stem cells (HSCs). As MOG simulates the production of abzymes with high DNase activity, we compared the effects of DNA and MOG immunization on EAE-prone mice. In contrast to MOG, immunization with DNA leads to a suppression of proteinuria, a decrease in the concentrations of antibodies to MOG and DNA and a reduction in abzyme production. Immunization with DNA only resulted in a significant increase in DNase activity over 40 days where it became 122-fold higher than before immunization, and fivefold higher when comparing to the maximal activity obtained after MOG treatment. DNA and MOG immunization had different effects on the differentiation profiles of HSCs, lymphocyte proliferation, and the level of apoptosis in bone marrow and other organs of mice. The data indicate that for C57BL/6 mice, DNA may have antagonistic effects with respect to MOG immunization. The usually fast immune response following MOG injection in C57BL/6 mice is strongly delayed after immunization with DNA, which is probably due to a rearrangement of the immune system following the response to DNA.

Changes in different parameters, lymphocyte proliferation and hematopoietic progenitor colony formation in EAE mice treated with myelin oligodendrocyte glycoprotein.

Myelin oligodendrocyte glycoprotein (MOG) is an antigen of the myelin sheath, which may trigger immune cell responses and the production of auto-antibodies in multiple sclerosis (MS). In this study, we used MOG(35-55) -induced experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE), a model of human MS, to assess the production of catalytically active immunoglobulin G (IgG) antibodies or abzymes which have been shown to be present in sera of patients with several autoimmune diseases. Here, we show that IgGs from the sera of control C57BL/6 mice are catalytically inactive. During development of EAE, a specific reorganization of the immune system of mice occurred leading to a condition which was associated with the generation of catalytically active IgGs hydrolysing DNA, myelin basic protein (MBP) and MOG which was associated with increased proteinuria, changes in differentiation of mice bone marrow hematopoietic stem cells (HSCs) and an increase in proliferation of lymphocytes in bone marrow, spleen and thymus as well as a significant suppression of cell apoptosis in these organs. The strongest alterations were found in the early disease phase (18-24 days after immunization) and were less pronounced in later EAE stages (40 days after EAE induction). We conclude that a significant increase in DNase and proteolytic activities of antibodies may be considered the earliest statistically significant marker of MOG-induced EAE in mice. The possible differences in immune system reorganizations during preclinical phases of the disease, acute and late EAE, leading to production of different auto-antibodies and abzymes as well other changes are discussed.

TNF binding protein of variola virus acts as a TNF antagonist at epicutaneous application.

VARV-CrmB is a TNF binding protein of variola virus. VARV-CrmB protein was previously shown to be active as a TNF-antagonist in a number of in vivo and in vitro models. Here we investigated the epicutaneous effect of recombinant VARV-CrmB protein using an experimental model of muTNFinduced migration of skin leukocytes as well as colony forming activity of bone marrow cells (BMC). Epiсutaneous applications of muTNF enhanced the number of cells migrating from skin flaps of BALB/c mice, whereas subsequent applications of VARV-CrmB protein in 30 min after muTNF, abolished that effect. Epicutaneously applied muTNF influenced the activity of committed hematopoietic progenitors causing a reduction of erythroid (BFUe+CFUe) colonies and increase of granulocyte-macrophage (CFU-GM) colonies in the colony-forming tests. VARV-CrmB, applied in combination with muTNF, demonstrated an ability to reverse this effect, namely, to increase BFUe+CFUe and reduce CFU-GM back to the control levels. Taking together, these data demonstrate the TNF-blocking properties of VARV-CrmB in vivo at epicutaneous applications. As effective TNF antagonist VARV-CrmB protein might be conceded as a beneficial candidate for future research and development of therapeutic approaches in the field of inflammatory skin diseases.

Formation of different abzymes in autoimmune-prone MRL-lpr/lpr mice is associated with changes in colony formation of haematopoietic progenitors.

It was shown that IgGs from the sera of 2-7-month-old control non-autoimmune (CBA x C57BL)F1 and BALB/c mice and 2-3-month-old autoimmune prone MRL-lpr/lpr mice (conditionally healthy mice) are catalytically inactive. During spontaneous development of deep systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE)-like pathology a specific reorganization of immune system of these mice leads to conditions associated with a production of IgGs hydrolyzing DNA, ATP and polysaccharides with low catalytic activities (conditionally pre-diseased mice).A significant increase in DNase, ATPase and amylase IgG relative activities associated with a transition from pre-diseased to deep diseased mice is correlated with additional changes in differentiation and proliferation of mice bone marrow haematopoietic stem cells (HSCs) and lymphocyte proliferation in different organs. The highest increase in all abzyme activities was found in mice immunized with DNA, which in comparison with pre-diseased and diseased mice are characterized by a different profile of HSC differentiation and by a suppression of cell apoptosis. Abzyme activities in the serum of pregnant females were comparable with those for pre-diseased mice, but the profile of HSC differentiation and cell apoptosis levels in pregnant and pre-diseased mice were quite different. Right after the beginning of lactation (4 days after delivery) and in a late time of lactation (14 days after delivery) there was an observed increase in cell apoptosis and two different stages of significant change in the HSC differentiation profiles; the first stage was accompanied with a significant increase and the second with a remarkable decrease in abzyme activities. Overall, all mouse groups investigated are characterized by a specific relationship between abzyme activities, HSC differentiation profiles, levels of lymphocyte proliferation, and cell apoptosis in different organs. From our point of view, the appearance of ATPase, DNase activities may be considered the earliest statistically significant marker of mouse spontaneous SLE and a further significant increase in their activities correlates with the appearance of SLE visible markers and with an increase in concentrations of anti-DNA Abs and urine protein. However, development of autoimmune (AI)-reactions and the increase in the sera anti-DNA antibodies (Abs) and in the abzyme activities in pregnant and lactating mice do not associate with SLE visible markers and proteinuria. The possible differences in immune system reorganizations during pre-disease, disease, pregnancy and lactation leading to production of different auto-antibodies and abzymes are discussed.

Hematopoietic progenitor colony formation in the immunopathogenesis of the autoimmune disorder in MRL/MpJ-lpr mice.

Lymphocyte proliferation and apoptosis at different stages of the development of the autoimmune disorder in MRL/MpJ-lpr mice was studied. Hematopoietic progenitor colony formation during the course of the disease was characterized. A detectable difference at the level of lymphocyte proliferation, apoptosis, and the relative amount of BFU-E, CFU-GM and CFU-GEMM cell colonies was revealed between healthy young mice and animals spontaneously developing pronounced symptoms of the autoimmune disorder. The quantity of BFU-E and CFU-GEMM colonies was remarkably increases in aged MRL/MpJ-lpr mice even before clinical manifestation of the disease (proteinuria). An elevated number of CFU-GEMM was accompanied by a striking increase in their size. The study of hematopoietic disturbances in autoimmune MRL/MpJ-lpr mice may be very useful for understanding the mechanism of the autoimmune disease development and searching for new strategies of the correction of the autoimmune disorder.