Neurogenic thoracic outlet syndrome and controversies in diagnosis and management.

Compression of the neurovascular structures at the level of the scalene triangle and pectoralis minor space is rare, but increasing awareness and understanding is allowing for the treatment of more individuals than in the past. We outlined the recognition, preoperative evaluation, and treatment of patients with neurogenic thoracic outlet syndrome. Recent work has illustrated the role of imaging and centrality of the physical examination on the diagnosis. However, a fuller understanding of the spatial biomechanics of the shoulder, scalene triangle, and pectoralis minor musculotendinous complex has shown that, although physical therapy is a mainstay of treatment, a poor response to physical therapy with a sound diagnosis should not preclude decompression. Modes of failure of surgical decompression stress the importance of full resection of the anterior scalene muscle and all posterior rib impinging elements to minimize the risk of recurrence of symptoms. Neurogenic thoracic outlet syndrome is a rare but critical cause of disability of the upper extremity. Modern understanding of the pathophysiology and evaluation have led to a sounder diagnosis. Although physical therapy is a mainstay, surgical decompression remains the gold standard to preserve and recover function of the upper extremity. Understanding these principles will be central to further developments in the treatment of this patient population.

Iliac vein stenting and pregnancy.

Venous stenting is the mainstay treatment of symptomatic iliofemoral venous outflow obstruction. However, because pregnancy and the postpartum period are hypercoagulable, concerns exist regarding stent placement in women of childbearing age. We performed a systematic review up to April 2023 of studies reporting on the performance of venous stents in women who subsequently became pregnant. The data collected included demographics, indication for stenting, stent characteristics, stent-related complications, incidence of venous thromboembolism, medical management during pregnancy, and follow-up. The indications for stenting included acute iliofemoral deep vein thrombosis in 39 patients (51%), nonthrombotic iliac vein lesions in 35 (46%), and post-thrombotic lesions in 2 patients. A total of 76 women with 87 subsequent pregnancies after stenting were included. Of the 76 women, 1 (1.14%) experienced stent occlusion, 2 (2.29%) developed asymptomatic nonocclusive in-stent thrombus, and 2 (2.29%) experienced permanent stent compression. The only patency loss occurred because of inadequate anticoagulation therapy in a patient with antiphospholipid antibodies. The two cases of permanent compression occurred in an arterial stent and a balloon-fenestrated Vici stent (Boston Scientific). Venous stents performed well through pregnancy and can be safely used in women of childbearing age. Given the increased risk of venous thromboembolism and the low bleeding risk, it is prudent to recommend anticoagulation therapy for all stented patients until more data are available.

RETRACTED: Australian and New Zealand Society for Vascular Surgery clinical practice guidelines on venous outflow Obstruction of the femoral-iliocaval veins.

BACKGROUND: The overall goal of this report is to provide a high-level, practical approach to managing venous outflow obstruction (VOO) in Australia and New Zealand. METHODS: A group of vascular surgeons from the Australian and New Zealand Society for Vascular Surgery with specific interest, training, and experience in the management of VOO were surveyed to assess current local practice. The results were analyzed and areas of disagreement identified. Following this, the group performed a literature review of consensus guidelines published by leading international organizations focused on the management of chronic venous disease, namely the Society for Vascular Surgery, American Venous Forum, European Society for Vascular Surgery, American Vein and Lymphatic Society, Cardiovascular and Interventional Radiology Society of Europe, and American Heart Association. These guidelines were compared against the consensus statements obtained through the surveys to determine how they relate to Australian and New Zealand practice. In addition, selected key studies, reviews, and meta-analyses on venous stenting were discussed and added to the document. Finally, a selection of statements with >75% agreement was voted on, and barriers to the guideline's applicability were identified. RESULTS: The document addresses two key areas: patient selection and technical aspects of venous stenting. Regarding patient selection, patients with a CEAP (Clinical-Etiologic-Anatomic-Physiologic) score of ≥3 or a venous clinical severity score for pain of ≥2, or both, and evidence of >50% stenosis on venography, computed tomography venography, magnetic resonance venography, and/or intravascular ultrasound should be considered for venous stenting (level of recommendation Ib) Patients undergoing thrombus removal for acute iliofemoral deep vein thrombosis, in whom a culprit stenotic lesion has been uncovered, should be considered for venous stenting (level of recommendation Ib). Patients with chronic pelvic pain, deep dyspareunia, postcoital pain affecting their quality of life, when other causes have been ruled out, should be considered for venous stenting (level of recommendation Ic). Asymptomatic patients should not be offered venous stenting (level of recommendation IIIc). CONCLUSIONS: Patients with deep VOO have been underdiagnosed and undertreated for decades; however, in recent years, interest from physicians and industry has grown substantially. The advent of simpler and safer treatment options has revolutionized its management, but, unfortunately, formal training for venous disease has not grown at the same rate. Simplifying the technology and training required can result in inconsistent outcomes. These guidelines are aimed at developing standards of care and will serve as an educational platform for future developments.

Recommendations for management of infected aortic pathology based on current evidence.

The management of infection involving the abdominal aorta requires clinical decisions based on patient factors and the nature of the infectious process. Any infection occurring after endovascular aortic aneurysm repair or open aortic replacement grafting should be treated promptly with appropriate systemic antibiotic therapy. Once a vascular prosthesis becomes infected, surgical treatment is necessary. There should be a low threshold for graft excision and extra-anatomic bypass in the presence of fistula or abscess cavity, when feasible entire graft should be excised. In selected patients, graft excision with in situ aorta reconstruction is an appropriate option using an autogenous femoral vein, cryopreserved allograft, or a prosthetic graft impregnated with antibiotic. The replaced in situ aortic graft should be covered with an omental pedicle. For primary aortic graft infections, endovascular treatment may act as a bridge to more definitive treatment; or, in the absence of gross retroperitoneal infections, endovascular grafting alone with prolonged systemic antibiotic therapy is a viable option, particularly in patients not fit for open surgical procedures.

Aortic reconstruction in infected aortic pathology by femoral vein "neo-aorta".

The use of autologous femoral veins for in situ reconstruction of the aortoiliac segment is an effective technique to treat native aorta or prosthetic graft infections. The indications, technical details, and outcomes of this procedure are detailed. Graft infection involving the aortic segment, while rare, remains one of the most challenging vascular surgery conditions to treat. The original technique of "neo-aortoiliac surgery" with in situ autologous vein grafts has evolved over the past 25 years and remains a worthwhile alternative for the treatment of aortic graft infections, with lower mortality rates compared with other extra-anatomic or in situ surgical options. Acceptance of this surgical option is due to low graft re-infection rates, rare graft disruption, and low long-term aneurysmal degeneration. Excision of the femoral veins is associated with acceptable rates of lower limb edema. The use of an autologous femoral vein graft can be considered the standard of care in selected patients for the management of aortic graft infections. Optimal management of patients with aortic graft infections requires consideration of all potential therapeutic options because no single modality can be used, and individualizing treatment according to the clinical condition will yield the best patient outcomes.

Common femoral endovenectomy in conjunction with iliac vein stenting to improve venous inflow in severe post-thrombotic obstruction.

Post-thrombotic syndrome secondary to iliofemoral deep venous thrombosis is a significant contributor to advanced chronic venous insufficiency. Iliac vein stenting is a standard procedure to treat iliocaval obstruction. In cases with obstruction extending across the groin, venous inflow for an iliac vein stent may be poor and compromise results of iliac vein stenting. Treatment options include extension of stents across the inguinal ligament that may have limitations in improving inflow only from only one vessel. Endovenectomy in this scenario becomes an attractive option with or without iliac vein stenting to provide outflow to the profunda vein, which otherwise is "axially transformed" in chronic iliofemoral deep venous thrombosis. We describe a technique of endovenectomy in combination with iliac vein stenting to establish a patent outflow tract for profunda and femoral veins. Accompanying also is a video demonstration of endovenectomy that will help viewers understand more technical aspects of the procedure.

Acute mesenteric ischemia: current multidisciplinary approach.

The aim of this review was to describe and discuss the mechanisms of acute mesenteric ischemia (AMI) and the rationale and conduct of currently available endovascular and open surgical techniques in its management. We also propose an algorithm to support the current multidisciplinary approach in decision-making for mesenteric revascularization to manage this high-risk entity.

Dialysis access-associated steal syndromes.

Symptomatic hand ischemia has been reported in occur in up to 20% of patients undergoing upper-extremity dialysis access procedures, and is a common cause of postoperative steal in the patient with end-stage renal disease. The majority of dialysis access steal syndromes do not require operative intervention, but severe ischemia associated with muscle paralysis can progress to limb amputation if left untreated. In this review, patient risk factors, clinical presentation, diagnostic techniques, and management options for patients with dialysis access steal syndromes are discussed.

Deep venous reconstructive surgery.

Surgical correction of deep venous reflux is a valuable adjunct in treatment of selected patient with lower limb venous ulcer. Deep venous obstruction and superficial reflux is must be corrected first. Sustained venous ulcer healing and reduced ambulatory venous hypertension can be achieved in patients with both primary and secondary deep venous insufficiency. When direct valve repair is possible, valvuloplasty is the best option, but when this is not feasible, other techniques can be used, including femoral vein transposition into the great saphenous vein, vein valve transplant, neovalve construction, or nonautologous artificial venous valve.

Algorithm-based approach to management of venous leg ulceration.

Management of venous ulceration has evolved tremendously during the last 2 decades. There has been considerable progress in our understanding of the pathophysiology, hemodynamics, venous imaging, and therapeutic options for venous ulcers, including endovenous ablation, iliac vein stenting, and vein-valve repair techniques. Details of these procedures are described in this issue of Seminars. With so many permutations and combinations of venous disease, including superficial and deep vein abnormalities, that produce venous ulceration, as well as a plethora of diagnostic and therapeutic tools at our disposal, it is important to have an algorithm for venous ulcer management. Also important is knowledge about risk factors that can influence poor outcomes, despite interventions for venous ulcers. In the end, authors also discuss the gray areas of venous ulcer management, which do not have common consensus and that treatment could be individualized based on patient needs.

Pantaloon femoral vein graft as "neoaorta" in infected aortic disease.

Infected abdominal aortic disease and graft infections pose a significant challenge for the vascular surgeon. Thorough radical débridement, either preceded by extra-anatomic bypass or followed by in situ aortic replacement, is the mainstay of treatment. The role of endovascular repair by stent grafts is being increasingly described but is limited to relatively less virulent mycotic aneurysms or as a "bridging" option in sick patients with florid sepsis that necessitates eventual delayed definitive surgical management. Autologous femoral vein has been an excellent conduit for aortic bifurcation reconstruction in this setting. Although various configurations of femoral vein conduit have been described for aortobi-iliac reconstruction, an in-depth knowledge of the venous anatomy, physiology, mechanisms of "profundization," and techniques of harvest and graft preparation is essential for efficient conduct of the operation and its optimal outcomes. We review in detail these aspects of "pantaloon" femoral vein graft creation as a "neoaorta".

Ischemic brachial artery entrapment syndrome by supracondylar humeral bony spur.

Medial supracondylar spur from the humerus is a rare cause of neurovascular pain of the upper extremity. The spur typically entraps the brachial artery and median nerve, resulting in compression-related symptoms. In advance stages, compression could lead to endothelial damage and thrombotic occlusion of brachial artery. Spur is also associated with an anomalous higher insertion of the pronator teres muscle, which could result in multilevel entrapment of the brachial artery. We report a patient with acute upper limb ischemia secondary to brachial artery compression and distal embolization from a medial supracondylar spur and anomalous attachment of the pronator teres. The entrapped brachial artery and median nerve were released by resection of the spur and of the anomalous belly of the pronator teres with thrombectomy of brachial artery.

Contemporary management of symptomatic primary aortic mural thrombus.

OBJECTIVE: Primary aortic mural thrombus (PAMT) is an uncommon condition but an important source of noncardiogenic emboli with a difficult diagnosis and a high rate of complications, including high mortality. We report our experience of thromboembolic disease from PAMT and review its contemporary management. METHODS: Retrospective analysis of prospectively collected data of all patients who presented with acute occlusion of a limb or visceral vessels between January 2011 and September 2013 was performed. RESULTS: A total of 88 patients presented with acute occlusion of the extremities or visceral arteries. All underwent extensive evaluation for the possible source of the embolism. Of these 88 patients, 19 patients (mean age, 41.2 years; male:female ratio, 1:2.1) were found to have aortic mural thrombus as the source of distal embolism. Thrombus was located in the thoracic aorta in 10 patients, in the perivisceral aorta in three patients, and in the infrarenal aorta in six patients. Thrombus in the thoracic aorta was treated with stent grafts in four patients, bare metal stents in three patients, and anticoagulation alone in two patients. In the suprarenal abdominal aorta, all three patients underwent trapdoor aortic thrombectomy. Infrarenal aortic thrombus was managed by aortobifemoral embolectomy in two patients, aortic stenting in two patients, surgical thrombectomy in one patient, and anticoagulation alone in one patient. Successful treatment, defined as freedom from further embolic events or recurrence of thrombus, was achieved in 14 of 19 patients (76.4%) with a mean follow-up period of 16.2 months (range, 2-28 months). There were four (21%) thrombus-related deaths, all due to primary thromboembolic insults. One patient needed a below-knee amputation because of a recurrent thrombotic episode. CONCLUSIONS: Symptomatic PAMT is an uncommon but important source of noncardiogenic embolus. It appears to occur more frequently in young women. Endovascular coverage of the aortic thrombus, when feasible, appears to be an effective and safe procedure with either stent grafts or closed-cell metal stents. When thrombus is located adjacent to visceral vessels, it should be managed with an open trapdoor thromboembolectomy.

Endovascular management of iatrogenic carotid-jugular fistula presenting as congestive heart failure.

Carotid-jugular arteriovenous fistula (C-J AVF) after inadvertent carotid puncture during internal jugular vein puncture is a rare entity. Previously, majority of reported cases of CJAVF were identified during inadvertent arterial puncture and managed as emergency. We report a delayed presentation of congestive cardiac failure following multiple attempts at securing an internal jugular venous access for dialysis 3 months prior to diagnosis. Carotid-jugular fistula was identified during workup and was successfully treated by endovascular technique with a covered stent.