In memory of Norman Bowery (1944-2016).

This article is in memory of Professor Norman Bowery (1944-2016). Norman was a pharmacologist who spent most of his career researching the pharmacology of γ-aminobutyric acid (GABA). He discovered a novel metabotropic receptor subtype, GABAB, that is pharmacologically, and structurally different from the original ionotropic receptor now designated as GABAA. In his research he also studied the neurotransmitters glutamate and substance P, two molecules whose release in parts of the spinal cord is inhibited by baclofen a GABAB receptor agonist. Norman was interested in the therapeutic potential of interacting with the GABAB receptor, in particular spasticity, pain and absence epilepsy.

Clinical pharmacology in neuroscience drug discovery: quo vadis?

Clinical Pharmacology in Neuroscience Drug Discovery in recent years has concentrated on First Time in Human safety and pharmacokinetics. The more traditional pharmacological research in humans has been reduced mainly as a response to the difficulty of developing human pharmacology models in neuroscience diseases. As a consequence, opportunities are being missed to aid in target selection and in target validation. The decision of big Pharma to reduce investment from the Neurosciences has had implications for clinical pharmacologists in this area. It remains to be seen whether academia, government laboratories and contract houses will respond to the challenge of carrying out increased Clinical Pharmacology in the Neurosciences.

Efficacy of vestipitant, a neurokinin-1 receptor antagonist, in primary insomnia.

STUDY OBJECTIVES: Investigate the hypnotic effects of repeated doses of neurokinin-1 receptor antagonist, vestipitant, in primary insomnia. DESIGN: Randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled 28-day parallel-group study. SETTING: Eleven sleep centers in Germany. PATIENTS: One hundred sixty-one patients with primary insomnia. INTERVENTIONS: Patients received vestipitant (15 mg) or placebo for 28 days; 2-night polysomnographic assessment occurred on nights 1/2 and 27/28. MEASUREMENTS AND RESULTS: Wake after sleep onset (WASO) was improved on nights 1/2 and 27/28 (ratio, vestipitant versus placebo [95% confidence interval]: 0.76 [0.65, 0.90], P = 0.001 and 0.79 [0.65, 0.96], P = 0.02, respectively), demonstrating maintenance of the effect following repeated dosing. Latency to persistent sleep was shorter with vestipitant on nights 1/2 (P = 0.0006 versus placebo), but not on nights 27/28. Total sleep time (TST) improved with vestipitant (nights 1/2: P < 0.0001, nights 27/28: P = 0.02 versus placebo). Next-day cognitive function tests demonstrated no residual effects of vestipitant (P > 0.05 versus placebo). Adverse events (AEs) occurred in 25% of vestipitant patients versus 22% for placebo. Headache was the most common AE (8% of vestipitant patients versus 9% for placebo). CONCLUSIONS: Vestipitant improved sleep maintenance in patients with primary insomnia, with no associated next-day cognitive impairment. The effects on wake after sleep onset and total sleep time were maintained following repeated dosing.

Why receptor reserve matters for neurokinin1 (NK1) receptor antagonists.

The difference in location between the receptor occupancy curve of an agonist and its functional response has been described as receptor reserve. This "reserve" for a specific receptor has been found to differ from tissue to tissue and between agonists acting on the same tissue. Recently, two structurally different neurokinin 1 (NK1) receptor antagonists were taken into human and both were tested as antidepressants and for insomnia. Vestipitant and Casopitant both have high affinity for the human NK1 receptor (pKi = 9.4 and 10.2, respectively). In human, at the chosen clinical doses, receptor occupancy was measured in the frontal cortex, at 24 hours post administration, as ∼90% for vestipitant (15 mg) and ∼100% for casopitant (30 mg). In patients with moderate to severe major depression, vestipitant given at 15 mg for 8 weeks showed no statistical significant benefit as measured by change in baseline in HAM-D total score; whereas casopitant at 80 mg achieved statistically significant improvement versus placebo at week 8 (LOCF HAMD17 = -2.7, p = 0.023). A lower dose of 30 mg showed a clear but not significant separation from placebo. However, in acute studies in insomnia, both vestipitant and casopitant at 15 mg and 30 mg, respectively, significantly reduced latency to persistent sleep, wakenings after sleep onset and increased total sleep time by similar amounts. These clinical results suggest that for major depression the receptor occupancy of an NK1 antagonist needs to be very high (almost 100%), whereas, for insomnia a lower occupation is sufficient to give clinical effect.

Full central neurokinin-1 receptor blockade is required for efficacy in depression: evidence from orvepitant clinical studies.

Full, persistent blockade of central neurokinin-1 (NK1) receptors may be a potential antidepressant mechanism. The selective NK1 antagonist orvepitant (GW823296) was used to test this hypothesis. A preliminary positron emission tomography study in eight male volunteers drove dose selection for two randomized six week studies in patients with major depressive disorder (MDD). Displacement of central [(11)C]GR205171 binding indicated that oral orvepitant doses of 30-60 mg/day provided >99% receptor occupancy for ≥24 h. Studies 733 and 833 randomized patients with MDD and 17-item Hamilton Depression Rating Scale (HAM-D)≥22 to double-blind treatment with orvepitant 30 mg/day, orvepitant 60 mg/day or placebo (1:1:1). Primary outcome measure was change from baseline in 17-item HAM-D total score at Week 6 analyzed using mixed models repeated measures. Study 733 (n=328) demonstrated efficacy on the primary endpoint (estimated drug-placebo differences of 30 mg: -2.41, 95% confidence interval (CI) (-4.50 to -0.31) p=0.0245; 60 mg: -2.86, 95% CI (-4.97 to -0.75) p=0.0082). Study 833 (n=345) did not show significance (estimated drug-placebo differences of 30 mg: -1.67, 95% CI (-3.73 to 0.39) p=0.1122; 60 mg: -0.76, 95% CI (-2.85 to 1.32) p=0.4713). The results support the hypothesis that full, long lasting blockade of central NK1 receptors may be an efficacious mechanism for the treatment of MDD.

Results from 2 randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled studies of the novel NK1 receptor antagonist casopitant in patients with major depressive disorder.

Clinical study results for neurokinin (NK) receptor antagonists in the treatment of depression have been mixed, with Phase III studies failing to fulfill the early promise demonstrated in Phase II studies. Casopitant, a selective NK1 antagonist that achieves nearly complete receptor occupancy was studied in 2 randomized, placebo-controlled, double-blind, Phase II trials in depressed outpatients to test the hypothesis that nearly complete NK1 receptor occupancy is required to achieve antidepressant efficacy. Study 092 used an interactive voice response system to recruit depressed patients with baseline Hamilton Depression (17-item, HAMD17) total scores higher than 24 who were randomized to fixed-dose casopitant 30 mg/d, 80 mg/d, or placebo for 8 weeks (n = 356). Study 096 required Carroll Depression Scale-Revised self-assessment scores of higher than 24 for randomization to casopitant 120 mg/d, paroxetine 30 mg/d (both reached via forced titration), or placebo for 8 weeks (n = 362). In study 092, casopitant 80 mg but not 30 mg achieved statistically significant improvement versus placebo on the primary outcome measure, week 8 last observation carried forward change from baseline HAMD17 (difference = -2.7; 95% confidence interval, -5.1 to -0.4, P = 0.023). In study 096, neither casopitant nor paroxetine achieved statistical separation from placebo at end point on HAMD17 (casopitant difference = -1.7; 95% CI, -3.8 to 0.4, P = 0.282). Casopitant and paroxetine were generally well tolerated in most patients. These studies suggest that NK1 antagonists that have nearly complete receptor occupancy may be effective in the treatment of depression.

Synthesis and structure-activity relationship of new 1,5-dialkyl-1,5-benzodiazepines as cholecystokinin-2 receptor antagonists.

This article deals with the synthesis and the activities of some 1,5-dialkyl-3-arylureido-1,5-benzodiazepin-2,4-diones which were prepared as potential CCK2 antagonists, with the intention to find a possible follow up of our lead compound GV150013, showing an improved pharmacokinetic profile. The phenyl ring at N-5 was replaced with more hydrophilic substituents, like alkyl groups bearing basic functions. In some cases, the resolution of the racemic key intermediates 3-amino-benzodiazepines was also accomplished. Among the compounds synthesized and characterised so far in this class, the 5-morpholinoethyl derivative 54, was selected as potential follow up of GV150013 and submitted for further evaluation.

Scientific process, pharmacology and drug discovery.

Scientific method in drug discovery has centered on generating a hypothesis (target identification) and hypothesis testing (target validation). Traditionally, both processes were performed using animal data, with the basic pharmacologist being pivotal. Many therapeutic areas that rely on human data to validate targets as animal models are seen as poorly predictive. Failures of molecules in Phase III for poor efficacy raise questions about target identification and validation. The clinical pharmacologist, working with the basic pharmacologist can play a major role in aiding target identification and by developing trial designs using small patient populations, mitigating the need for full Phase III studies to test the hypothesis. Technologies such as genomics, non-invasive imaging and proteomics are in the forefront of improving target identification and in some cases in providing paradigms for target validation in man.

Discovery and biological characterization of (2R,4S)-1'-acetyl-N-{(1R)-1-[3,5-bis(trifluoromethyl)phenyl]ethyl}-2-(4-fluoro-2-methylphenyl)-N-methyl-4,4'-bipiperidine-1-carboxamide as a new potent and selective neurokinin 1 (NK1) receptor antagonist clinical candidate.

A large body of compelling preclinical evidence supports the clinical use of neurokinin (NK) receptor antagonists in a plethora of CNS and non-CNS therapeutic areas. The significant investment made in this area over the past 2 decades culminated with the observation that NK(1) receptor antagonists elicited clinical efficacy in major depression disorders. In addition, aprepitant (Merck) was launched as a new drug able to prevent chemotherapy-induced nausea and vomiting (CINV). After the discovery by GlaxoSmithKline of vestipitant, a wide drug discovery program was launched aimed at identifying additional clinical candidates. New compounds were designed to maximize affinity at the NK(1) receptor binding site while retaining suitable physicochemical characteristics to ensure excellent pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic properties in vivo. Herein we describe the discovery process of a new NK(1) receptor antagonist (casopitant) selected as clinical candidate and progressed into clinical studies to treat major depression disorders.

A selective neurokinin-1 receptor antagonist in chronic PTSD: a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled, proof-of-concept trial.

The substance P-neurokinin-1 receptor (SP-NK(1)R) system has been extensively studied in experimental models of stress, fear, and reward. Elevated cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) SP levels were reported previously in combat-related PTSD. No medication specifically targeting this system has been tested in PTSD. This proof-of-concept randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial evaluated the selective NK(1)R antagonist GR205171 in predominately civilian PTSD. Following a 2-week placebo lead-in, 39 outpatients with chronic PTSD and a Clinician-Administered PTSD Scale (CAPS) score ≥50 were randomized to a fixed dose of GR205171 (N=20) or placebo (N=19) for 8weeks. The primary endpoint was mean change from baseline to endpoint in the total CAPS score. Response rate (≥50% reduction in baseline CAPS) and safety/tolerability were secondary endpoints. CSF SP concentrations were measured in a subgroup of patients prior to randomization. There was significant improvement in the mean CAPS total score across all patients over time, but no significant difference was found between GR205171 and placebo. Likewise, there was no significant effect of drug on the proportion of responders [40% GR205171 versus 21% placebo (p=0.30)]. An exploratory analysis showed that GR205171 treatment was associated with significant improvement compared to placebo on the CAPS hyperarousal symptom cluster. GR205171 was well-tolerated, with no discontinuations due to adverse events. CSF SP concentrations were positively correlated with baseline CAPS severity. The selective NK(1)R antagonist GR205171 had fewer adverse effects but was not significantly superior to placebo in the short-term treatment of chronic PTSD. (ClinicalTrials.gov Identifier: NCT 00211861, NCT 00383786).

Anxiolytic-like effects of the neurokinin 1 receptor antagonist GR-205171 in the elevated plus maze and contextual fear-potentiated startle model of anxiety in gerbils.

Gerbils show a neurokinin (NK)1 receptor pharmacological profile, which is similar to that observed in humans, and thus have become a commonly used species to test efficacy of NK1 receptor antagonists. The aim of this study was to determine whether systemic administration of the NK1 receptor antagonist GR-205171 produced anxiolytic-like effects in the elevated plus maze and in a novel contextual conditioned fear test using fear-potentiated startle (FPS). On the elevated plus maze, treatment with GR-205171 at 0, 0.3, 1.0, and 5.0 mg/kg doses, 30 min before testing produced anxiolytic-like effects in an increasing dose-response manner as measured by the percentage of open arm time and percentage of open arm entries. For contextual fear conditioning, gerbils were given 10 unsignaled footshocks (0.6 mA) at a 2-min variable interstimulus interval in a distinctive training context. Twenty-four hours after training, gerbils received treatment of GR-205171 at 0, 0.3, 1.0, and 5.0 mg/kg doses, 30 min before testing in which startle was elicited in the same context in which they were trained. Contextual FPS was defined as an increase in startle over pretraining baseline values. All drug dose levels (0.3, 1.0, and 5.0 mg/kg) significantly attenuated contextual FPS when compared with the vehicle control group. A control group, which received testing in a different context, showed little FPS. These findings support other evidence for anxiolytic activity of NK1 receptor antagonists and provide a novel conditioned fear test that may be an appropriate procedure to test other NK1 antagonists for preclinical anxiolytic activity in gerbils.

Discovery process and pharmacological characterization of 2-(S)-(4-fluoro-2-methylphenyl)piperazine-1-carboxylic acid [1-(R)-(3,5-bis-trifluoromethylphenyl)ethyl]methylamide (vestipitant) as a potent, selective, and orally active NK1 receptor antagonist.

In an effort to discover novel druglike NK(1) receptor antagonists a new series of suitably substituted C-phenylpiperazine derivatives was identified by an appropriate chemical exploration of related N-phenylpiperazine analogues, with the specific aim to maximize their in vitro affinity and optimize in parallel their pharmacokinetic profile. Among the compounds synthesized, 2-(S)-(4-fluoro-2-methylphenyl)piperazine-1-carboxylic acid [1-(R)-(3,5-bis-trifluoromethylphenyl)ethyl]methylamide (vestipitant) was identified as one of the most in vitro potent and selective NK(1) receptor antagonists ever discovered, showing appropriate pharmacokinetic properties and in vivo activity. On the basis of its preclinical profile, this compound was selected as a drug candidate.