The Effectiveness of Water- versus Land-Based Exercise on Specific Measures of Physical Fitness in Healthy Older Adults: An Integrative Review.

As the population ages, maintaining an active lifestyle becomes increasingly vital to promote overall health and well-being in older individuals. Water- and land-based exercises have emerged as popular options, each offering a distinct set of benefits tailored to the unique needs of this population group. An electronic database search, including PubMed, Scopus, MEDLINE, and Web of Science, was conducted until 15 September 2023, using the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) guidelines, to investigate the effects of water-based compared to land-based exercise on selected fitness parameters in older healthy individuals. The eligibility criteria included studies with at least two groups of participants aged 60 and older, with physical fitness outcome measures. A total of ten studies met the inclusion criteria and were analyzed. While both exercise modalities may offer significant benefits, this review's findings emphasized the absence of conclusive evidence and consensus for recommending a single exercise category applicable to aquatic or land environments and providing more definite guidance to improve health-related physical fitness parameters in healthy older individuals. Finally, combining both training approaches may lead to a comprehensive array of health benefits for this age group population by also considering individual's needs, preferences, and fitness goals.

The Long-Term Adaptations of a Combined Swimming and Aquatic Therapy Intervention in an Adult Person with High-Functioning Autism (Asperger's Syndrome): A Case Study.

Individuals with High-Functioning Autism present impairments in communication, social interaction, and motor development. A low level of motor skills, namely difficulties in gross and fine mobility, and in motor control, discourage individuals with High-Functioning Autism from being involved in physical activities, resulting in fewer opportunities for social interaction. There is not much evidence available about the effects of regular swimming exercise and/or aquatic therapy on health promotion in adults with High-Functioning Autism. An adult male (22 yrs) diagnosed with High-Functioning Autism participated in a combined 6-month swimming and aquatic therapy program (two sessions/week, 60 min each). The pre- and post-intervention assessments consisted of physical fitness, balance, functional ability, and psychomotor tests. The post-intervention assessments showed improvements in the standing long jump (+100%), hand grip force (+71.7%), bend arm hang test (+123.1%), and the physiological parameters in the 6 min walk test (+10.2%). On the opposite, decrements in the sit-up (-12%) and sit-and-reach test (-6.3%) were observed. It was noted that the participant frequently lost interest and focus quickly, resulting in the abandonment of the exercise. Conclusively, there is a great need for further research on this topic examining a larger adult population.

Shoulder Pain and Trunk Muscles Endurance in Young Male and Female Swimmers.

Shoulder pain is a common syndrome in swimming and affects a large number of competitive swimmers. The purpose of the study was to investigate the relationship between pain in the shoulder girdle and the endurance of the trunk muscles in young swimmers. A total of 24 boys and 22 girls, aged 13 to 18 years, participated in the study. The measurements included the completion of a questionnaire (Shoulder Pain and Disability Index, SPADI) and a field test (McGill's Torso Muscular Endurance Test). The total SPADI score correlated weakly and negatively with the endurance time of back muscles in both sexes (r2 = 0.10, p = 0.035), and moderately and negatively in girls (r2 = 0.23, p = 0.023). A weak negative correlation was found between the disability index and the back muscles' endurance time in both sexes (r2 = 0.15, p = 0.007), which was moderate in girls only (r2 = 0.25, p = 0.019). The disability index displayed moderate negative correlations with the right oblique's (r2 = 0.18, p = 0.049) and left oblique's endurance time (r2 = 0.23, p = 0.024) in girls. Weight, body mass index, the total out-of-water training time per week and age significantly affected the endurance times of the trunk muscles in boys and girls (p < 0.05). In conclusion, strengthening the dorsal and the oblique muscles could reduce shoulder pain and disability in young swimmers and especially girls.

Effects of Aquatic Interventions on Physical Health Indicators in People with Intellectual Disabilities: A Review.

Exercise in water is widely used for improving the physical capacities of people with intellectual disabilities (IDs). In this review, we examined the results of studies on the effects of water interventions on functional abilities, as well as the physiological and biochemical status of people with IDs. We considered studies in the PubMed, MEDLINE, Scopus, Google Scholar, and Research Gate databases which were published between 2010 and 31 December 2022. Based on our inclusion criteria, 15 studies were selected for review. We found incomplete recording of data on the intensity and timing of physical activity. There was also wide variation in the terminology used to describe physical abilities. The study results suggested that aquatic interventions brought about improvements in endurance and strength; however, conflicting data were found with respect to balance and body mass index, and there were few data on biomarkers related to stress and brain health. Further research with more accurate training load data and a more common fitness terminology is needed. Lastly, traditional swimming should probably be considered as an aquatic intervention.

The Effect of Post-Activation Potentiation on Swimming Starts in Adolescent Swimmers.

BACKGROUND: Post-activation potentiation (PAP) is a phenomenon in which there is an increase in induced momentum in sporting activities after muscle contractions. In swimming, the start of the race and the increase in speed in its first few meters are important. The aim of the present study was to investigate the effect of the PAP protocol, which included a simulated body weight start on the ground, on the swimming start and on the 25 m freestyle performance. METHODS: The study included 14 male and 14 female swimmers, 14.9 ± 0.6 years old. All the swimmers performed three maximal attempts of 25 m freestyle swimming from the starting block on three different days in a randomly counterbalanced order. In each session, swimmers performed either a 25 m freestyle without any intervention before the swimming trial (CG), or performed four vertical simulated ground starts at maximal effort, 15 s before (15 sG) or 8 min before (8 minG) the swimming trial. The jump height, entry distance, flight time, and flight speed for each attempt were calculated. RESULTS: The CG entry distance was significantly longer than that of the 15 sG and 8 minG (3.39 ± 0.20 vs. 3.31 ± 0.21 and 3.25 ± 0.25 m, respectively, p < 0.001). CONCLUSIONS: Four simulated swim starts on the ground, 15 s or 8 min before the swim sprint, had no positive effect on the swim start or swim performance, and it is up to the swimmer to perform these jumps.

Effect of the Reduction in Training Volume during the COVID-19 Era on Performance in 100-m and 400-m Freestyle Events in Greek Swimming Championships.

The COVID-19 pandemic had a profound impact on almost all social activities, including sport participation. Swimming training was greatly reduced during the 2019−2020 and 2020−2021 seasons (by four and two months, respectively), which caused athletes and coaches to worry about performance in championships. The present study investigated the impact of COVID-19 lockdowns on the results of Greek swimming championships in the categories of 13 to 18 years of age during 2020 and 2021. Forty-one coaches were interviewed about the training process (satisfaction, duration of the training season, and daily training swimming distance), and the performance of swimmers in national championships over seven seasons (2014−2021) was analyzed. The duration of the training season and the daily swimming distance, as reported by the coaches, were lower during the 2019−2020 and 2020−2021 seasons, compared to the previous five seasons (p < 0.001). The number of swimmers who achieved qualifying times for the national championships during the COVID-19 era were similar to those in previous years. Comparisons of the times in the 100-m and 400-m freestyle events, in both genders, from 2015 through 2021, showed no significant differences except for the 400-m event in males, in which a lower performance was detected in 2021 compared to 2015 (by 2.7%, p = 0.001). In conclusion, two or four months of detraining during the COVID-19 era had a negative impact on the coaches' evaluation of the training process, but there was no effect on the number of young swimmers who qualified for the national championships and a negligible effect on swimming performance in 100-m and 400-m freestyle events.

Low-Volume Sprint Interval Swimming Is Sufficient to Increase Blood Metabolic Biomarkers in Master Swimmers.

Purpose: Sprint interval exercise is a time-efficient way of inducing beneficial adaptations. However, little is known about its minimal effective volume, especially in swimming. The aim of the present study was to evaluate and compare the effects of two sprint interval swimming sets of different low volumes on blood biomarkers. Method: Twenty-one master swimmers [11 females aged 38.5 (8.5) years, 10 males aged 42.7 (5.7) years] completed two freestyle swimming sets of 4 × 50 m and 4 × 25 m at maximal intensity and a work-to-rest ratio of 1:1, on different days, in random and counterbalanced order. Blood samples were taken before, immediately after and one hour after exercise for determination of a number of biochemical parameters. Results: Swimming speed was higher in the 4 × 25-m set. Lactate, glucose, insulin, glucagon, cortisol, and reduced glutathione increased immediately post-exercise, while uric acid increased 1 h post-exercise (p < .05). All aforementioned biomarkers, excluding glucagon, increased more with the 4 × 50-m set, compared to the 4 × 25-m set (p < .05). Session rating of perceived exertion was higher after the 4 × 50-m set (p = .011). Conclusion: Both sprint interval swimming sets elicited increases in blood biomarkers in master swimmers. The set of higher volume elicited greater increases in most of the biochemical markers studied but also in subjective load. Thus, although the set of higher volume was more efficient in perturbing blood biomarkers, even the very low-volume set induced metabolic stress that may trigger adaptive mechanisms.

Response of Blood Biomarkers to Sprint Interval Swimming.

PURPOSE: To evaluate and compare the effects of 2 sprint interval training (SIT) sets of different distances on biochemical markers indicative of metabolism, stress, and antioxidant capacity in competitive swimmers and, to investigate the potential influence of gender on these markers. METHODS: Twenty-four adolescent, well-trained swimmers (12 men and 12 women) participated in the study. In a random and counterbalanced order, the swimmers completed 2 SIT sets (8 × 50 m and 8 × 25 m) in freestyle with maximal intensity on different days. Work-to-rest ratio was 1:1 in both sets. Blood samples were drawn preexercise, immediately postexercise, and 1 hour postexercise to evaluate the effects of the SIT sets on a number of biochemical parameters. RESULTS: Swimming speed was higher at 8 × 25 m. The 2 SIT sets induced significant increases in lactate, glucose, insulin, glucagon, cortisol, and uric acid (P ≤ .001). No differences in these parameters were found between sets, except for irisin (higher in 8 × 50 m; P = .02). Male swimmers were faster and had higher lactate and uric acid concentrations, as well as lower reduced glutathione concentration, than female swimmers (P < .01). CONCLUSIONS: The 2 swimming SIT sets induced increases in most of the biochemical markers studied. The 2-fold difference between sets in distance did not differentiate the effects of sprint interval exercise on most biochemical parameters. Thus, low-volume SIT sets seem to be effective stimuli for competitive swimmers.

How attitude towards food fortification can lead to purchase intention.

This research examines how consumers' general attitude towards food fortification can lead to their intention to purchase vitamin D fortified food. Specifically, it is argued that this effect can be mediated by the perceived personal benefit of consuming vitamin D fortified food; and that the indirect effect is moderated by problem awareness and the perceived appropriateness of vitamin D fortification in a given food product category. Perceived personal benefit and problem awareness reflect the individual versus public interest to improve health, respectively. The model is tested among a sample of 1263 adult consumers who evaluated ten mainly animal-based food products, including dairy and processed meat products. Results of moderated mediation analysis indicate that general attitude towards food fortification are associated with perceived personal benefit, especially under conditions of high problem awareness. Purchase intention of vitamin D fortified food does not only depend on consumers' assessment of their personal benefit of enriching foods with vitamin D, but also the perceived appropriateness of a given product to be fortified. Importantly, high appropriateness can offset the attenuated effect associated with low problem awareness.

Effects of sprint interval exercise dose and sex on circulating irisin and redox status markers in adolescent swimmers.

Irisin and redox status markers seem to share common pathways of exercise-induced upregulation. The aim of the present study was to assess the effects of sprint interval swimming exercise dose and sex on the circulating levels of irisin and redox status markers in adolescent swimmers. Sixteen male and 16 female adolescent swimmers completed two sets of 4 × 50 m maximal freestyle swimming with a send-off time of 90 s, separated by 10 min of passive recovery. Venous blood samples were obtained pre-exercise (Pre), after the first set (Post1) and after the second set (Post2). Males had higher irisin levels than females. Reduced glutathione (GSH, µmol g Hb-1) increased from 8.6 (2.2) [pooled males and females, mean (SD) throughout] at Pre to 9.4 (2.1) at Post1 and Post2. Total antioxidant capacity (µmol DPPH mL-1) increased from 0.89 (0.17) at Post1 to 0.94 (0.16) at Post2. 8-hydroxy-2´-deoxyguanosine (ng mL-1) increased from 20.9 (6.9) at Pre and 21.5 (7.1) at Post1 to 25.0 (10.9) at Post2. Overall, sprint interval swimming exercise induced small but potentially effective changes in the studied parameters. Exercise dose influenced the GSH and 8-OHdG responses, and sex affected irisin levels.

An analysis of the effects of a campaign supporting use of a health symbol on food sales and shopping behaviour of consumers.

BACKGROUND: Since 2009, the green Keyhole symbol has been a joint Nordic initiative for signalling healthfulness of specific food products. In 2014, the Danish Ministry of Food, Agriculture and Fisheries carried out a campaign aimed mainly at men over 35 with a low level of education, encouraging them to use the Keyhole in their shopping process. The objective of the study is to evaluate the campaign by measuring its effect on consumer behaviour in the store. METHODS: The impact of the Keyhole campaign was measured in selected retail stores. Sales data were analysed to ascertain whether sales of Keyhole labelled products changed during and after the campaign. Observations and interviews were conducted in the same stores. RESULTS: The campaign had a positive effect on sales of Keyhole-labelled products in two out of three retail chains investigated. In these two retail chains, sales of Keyhole labelled products rose by about 20%. In the third chain, there was a slight decrease of sales of Keyhole labelled products. The effect differed considerably between product categories. Analysis of the interview data indicated that by the end of the campaign, shoppers with a short education had a higher likelihood of mentioning health as a purchase motive, and there was a higher general tendency to look for nutrition information. CONCLUSIONS: Results suggest that the campaign did have effects on shopper behaviour and that it is possible to address shoppers with a short education by a tailored campaign. However, long-term effect of the campaign was not ascertained.

Improved reliability of the urine lactate concentration under controlled hydration after maximal exercise.

CONTEXT: Urine lactate may be a novel biomarker of lactate production capacity but its reliability has been unsatisfactory so far. OBJECTIVE: To compare the reliability of urine lactate between controlled hydration and no hydration after maximal exercise. MATERIAL AND METHODS: Athletes performed swimming exercise four times: two followed by consumption of 1 L of water and two followed by no water intake. Blood and urine lactate was measured. RESULTS: The reliability of urine lactate was good and similar to that in blood only after controlled hydration. Blood and urine lactate were correlated under both hydration conditions. DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION: Controlled hydration after exercise provides satisfactory reliability of urine lactate.

Reliability of urine lactate as a novel biomarker of lactate production capacity in maximal swimming.

CONTEXT: Postexercise urine lactate may be a novel biomarker of lactate production capacity during exercise. OBJECTIVE: To evaluate the reliability and utility of the urine lactate concentration after maximal swimming trials between different training protocols (6 × 50 m and 3 × 100 m) and training states (active and nonactive swimmers). MATERIALS AND METHODS: Lactate and creatinine were determined by spectrophotometry in blood and urine. RESULTS: Blood and urine lactate concentrations were correlated in-between training protocols and in participants of different training states. The reliability of the urine lactate concentration was moderate for one of the training protocols and good or moderate for the two training states. Additionally, it was lower than that of the blood lactate concentration, and did not improve after normalizing to the urine creatinine concentration. DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION: Although promising as a biomarker of lactate production capacity, urine lactate requires further research to improve its reliability.

Effects of Short-Interval and Long-Interval Swimming Protocols on Performance, Aerobic Adaptations, and Technical Parameters: A Training Study.

Dalamitros, AA, Zafeiridis, AS, Toubekis, AG, Tsalis, GA, Pelarigo, JG, Manou, V, and Kellis, S. Effects of short-interval and long-interval swimming protocols on performance, aerobic adaptations, and technical parameters: A training study. J Strength Cond Res 30(10): 2871-2879, 2016-This study compared 2-interval swimming training programs of different work interval durations, matched for total distance and exercise intensity, on swimming performance, aerobic adaptations, and technical parameters. Twenty-four former swimmers were equally divided to short-interval training group (INT50, 12-16 × 50 m with 15 seconds rest), long-interval training group (INT100, 6-8 × 100 m with 30 seconds rest), and a control group (CON). The 2 experimental groups followed the specified swimming training program for 8 weeks. Before and after training, swimming performance, technical parameters, and indices of aerobic adaptations were assessed. ΙΝΤ50 and ΙΝΤ100 improved swimming performance in 100 and 400-m tests and the maximal aerobic speed (p ≤ 0.05); the performance in the 50-m swim did not change. Posttraining V[Combining Dot Above]O2max values were higher compared with pretraining values in both training groups (p ≤ 0.05), whereas peak aerobic power output increased only in INT100 (p ≤ 0.05). The 1-minute heart rate and blood lactate recovery values decreased after training in both groups (p < 0.01). Stroke length increased in 100 and 400-m swimming tests after training in both groups (p ≤ 0.05); no changes were observed in stroke rate after training. Comparisons between groups on posttraining mean values, after adjusting for pretraining values, revealed no significant differences between ΙΝΤ50 and ΙΝΤ100 for all variables; however, all measures were improved vs. the respective values in the CON (p < 0.001-0.05). In conclusion, when matched for distance and exercise intensity, the short-interval (50 m) and long-interval (100 m) protocols confer analogous improvements in swimming performance, in stroke cycle parameters, and in indices of aerobic adaptations after 8 weeks of training.

Exercise-induced oxidatively damaged DNA in humans: evaluation in plasma or urine?

Physical exercise can induce oxidative damage in humans. 8-Hydroxy-2'-deoxyguanosine (8-OHdG) is a widely known biomarker of DNA oxidation, which can be determined in blood and urine. The aim of the present study was to compare these two biological fluids in terms of which is more suitable for the estimation of the oxidative damage of DNA by measuring the concentration of 8-OHdG one hour after maximal exercise by enzyme immunoassay. The concentration of 8-OHdG increased with exercise only in plasma (p < 0.001), and values differed between exercise tests in both plasma and urine (p < 0.05). In conclusion, plasma appears to be more sensitive to exercise-induced 8-OHdG changes than urine and, hence, a more appropriate medium for assessing oxidative damage of DNA, although the poor repeatability of the measurement needs to be addressed in future studies.

Monitoring the Response of the Human Urinary Metabolome to Brief Maximal Exercise by a Combination of RP-UPLC-MS and (1)H NMR Spectroscopy.

The delineation of exercise biochemistry by utilizing metabolic fingerprinting has become an established strategy. We present a combined RP-UPLC-MS and (1)H NMR strategy, supplemented by photometric assays, to monitor the response of the human urinary metabolome to short maximal exercise. Seventeen male volunteers performed two identical sprint sessions on separate days, consisting of three 80 m maximal runs. Using univariate and multivariate analyses, we followed the fluctuation of 37 metabolites at 1, 1.5, and 2 h postexercise. 2-Hydroxyisovalerate, 2-hydroxybutyrate, 2-oxoisocaproate, 3-methyl-2-oxovalerate, 3-hydroxyisobutyrate, 2-oxoisovalerate, 3-hydroxybutyrate, 2-hydroxyisobutyrate, alanine, pyruvate, and fumarate increased 1 h postexercise and then returned toward baseline. Lactate and acetate were higher than baseline at 1 and 1.5 h. Hypoxanthine and inosine remained above baseline throughout the postexercise period. Urate decreased at 1 h and increased at 1.5 h before returning to baseline. Valine, isoleucine, succinate, citrate, trimethylamine, trimethylamine N-oxide, tyrosine, and formate decreased at 1 h and/or 1.5 h postexercise and then returned to baseline. Creatinine gradually decreased over the sampling period. Glycine, 4-aminohippurate, and hippurate remained below baseline throughout the postexercise period. Our findings show that even one-half minute of maximal exercise elicited major perturbations in human metabolism, several of which persisted for at least 2 h.

Effects of endurance and high-intensity swimming exercise on the redox status of adolescent male and female swimmers.

Throughout adolescence, swimmers begin to carry out demanding endurance and high-intensity training sets, the effect of which on redox status is largely unknown. The aim of the present study was to investigate the effects of 2000-m continuous swimming and 6 × 50-m maximal swimming on the redox status of adolescent swimmers. Fifteen male and 15 female swimmers, aged 14-18 years, provided blood samples before, immediately after, 1 h after, and 24 h after each exercise for the determination of redox status parameters. Oxidative damage was short-lived and manifest as increases in 8-hydroxy-2΄-deoxyguanosine (8-OHdG) 1 h after high-intensity exercise (39%, P < 0.001) and in malondialdehyde immediately after both exercises (65%, P < 0.001). Alterations in antioxidant parameters were sustained during recovery: reduced glutathione decreased 24 h post-exercise (11%, P = 0.001), uric acid increased gradually after high-intensity exercise (29%, P < 0.001) and bilirubin peaked 24 h post-exercise (29%, P < 0.001). Males had higher 8-OHdG (49%, P = 0.001) and uric acid (29%, P < 0.001) concentrations than females. However, females showed higher values of malondialdehyde than males immediately post-exercise (30%, P = 0.039), despite lower pre-exercise values. In conclusion, both endurance and high-intensity exercise perturbed the redox balance without inducing prolonged oxidative damage in trained adolescent male and female swimmers. These swimming training trials were not found to be detrimental to the redox homeostasis of adolescents.

1H NMR study on the short- and long-term impact of two training programs of sprint running on the metabolic fingerprint of human serum.

Metabonomics is an established strategy in the exploration of the effects of various stimuli on the metabolic fingerprint of biofluids. Here, we present an application of (1)H NMR-based metabonomics on the field of exercise biochemistry. Fourteen men were assigned to either of two training programs, which lasted 8 weeks and involved sets of 80-m maximal runs separated by either 10 s or 1 min of rest. Analysis of pre- and postexercise serum samples, both at the beginning and end of training, by (1)H NMR spectroscopy and subsequent multivariate statistical techniques revealed alterations in the levels of 18 metabolites. Validated O-PLS models could classify the samples in regard to exercise, the separation being mainly due to lactate, pyruvate, alanine, leucine, valine, isoleucine, arginine/lysine, glycoprotein acetyls, and an unidentified metabolite resonating at 8.17 ppm. Samples were also classified safely with respect to training, the separation being mainly due to lactate, pyruvate, methylguanidine, citrate, glucose, valine, taurine, trimethylamine N-oxide, choline-containing compounds, histidines, acetoacetate/acetone, glycoprotein acetyls, and lipids. Samples could not be classified according to the duration of the rest interval between sprints. Our findings underline the power of metabonomics to offer new insights into the short- and long-term impact of exercise on metabolism.

Muscle metabolism and performance improvement after two training programmes of sprint running differing in rest interval duration.

Repeated-sprint training often involves short sprints separated by inadequate recovery intervals. The effects of interval duration on metabolic and performance parameters are unclear. We compared the effects of two training programmes, differing in rest interval duration, on muscle (vastus lateralis) metabolism and sprint performance. Sixteen men trained three times a week for 8 weeks, each training session comprising 2-3 sets of two 80-m sprints. Sprints were separated by 10 s (n = 8) or 1 min (n = 8). Both training programmes improved performance in the 100-, 200-, and 300-m sprints, but the improvement was greater in the 10-s group during the final 100 m of the 200- and 300-m runs. Independent of interval duration, training mitigated the drop of muscle ATP after two 80-m sprints. The drop in phosphocreatine and the increases in glucose-6-phosphate and fructose-6-phosphate after two 80-m sprints were greater in the 10-s group. In conclusion, training with a limited number of repeated short sprints (≤10 s) may be more effective in improving speed maintenance in 200- and 300-m runs when performed with a 1:1 rather than a 1:6 exercise-to-rest ratio. This may be due to a greater activation of glycolysis caused, in part, by the limited resynthesis of phosphocreatine during the very short rest interval.

The effect of different first 200-m pacing strategies on blood lactate and biomechanical parameters of the 400-m sprint.

The purpose of the present study was to evaluate the effect of three pacing strategies upon performance of the 400-m sprint. Eight healthy male physical education students participated in this study. Each participant performed a 200-m maximal test (200(MAX)) and three 400-m running tests in a random counterbalanced design. The 400-m tests were run with the first 200-m pace set at 98% (400(98%)), 95% (400(95%)), and 93% (400(93%)), respectively, of the effort for 200(MAX). The stimulation of the lactate system was assessed by post-test blood lactate concentration (BLa). Running speed (RS) was controlled with time-keeping devices. Stride frequency (SF), stride length (SL) and lower extremity kinematics were acquired with video cameras operating at 100 fps at the 125 and 380-m marks of the tests. A two-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) with repeated measures was used to identify modifications caused by the pacing strategies used. Non-significant differences were revealed for BLa. The fastest 400-m race was run in 400(93%), but performance was not significantly different (p > 0.05) among the examined pacing strategies. RS, SF and SL had significantly (p < 0.05) lower values in the 380-m mark when compared with the 125-m mark. In 400(98%), both SF and SL decreased by approximately 13%, while SF and SL dropped 2.4 and 9.2%, respectively, in 400(93%). In conclusion, lower peak BLa and less unfavorable modifications of running mechanics were recorded in 400(93%), where time differential between the halves of the 400-m race was smaller, which eventually resulted in better performance.