Swallowing-like activity elicited in neonatal rat medullary slice preparation.

Swallowing is induced by a central pattern generator in the nucleus tractus solitarius (NTS). We aimed to create a medullary slice preparation to elucidate the neural architecture of the central pattern generator of swallowing (Sw-CPG) and record its neural activities. Experiments were conducted on 2-day-old Sprague-Dawley rats (n = 46). The brainstem-spinal cord was transected at the pontomedullary and cervicothoracic junctions; the medulla was sliced transversely at thicknesses of 600, 700, or 800 µm. The rostral end of the slice was 100 µm rostral to the vagus nerve. We recorded hypoglossal nerve activity and electrically stimulated the vagus nerve or microinjected bicuculline methiodide (BIC) into the NTS. The 800-µm slices generated both rhythmic respiratory activity and electrically elicited neural activity. The 700-µm slices generated only respiratory activity, while the 600-µm slices did not generate any neural activity. BIC microinjection into the NTS in 800-µm slices resulted in the typical activity that closely resembled the swallowing activity reported in other experiments. This swallowing-like activity consistently lengthened the respiratory interval. Despite complete inhibition of respiratory activity, weak swallowing-like activity was observed under bath application of a non-NMDA receptor antagonist. Contrastingly, bath application of NMDA receptor antagonists resulted in a complete loss of swallowing-like activity and no change in respiratory activity. These results suggest that the 800-µm medullary slice preparation contains both afferent and efferent neural circuits and pattern generators of swallowing activity. Additionally, NMDA receptors may be necessary for generating swallowing activity. This medullary slice preparation can therefore elucidate Sw-CPG neural networks.

Adipose tissue-derived lipokines in metabolism.

Adipose tissue is a crucial regulator of metabolism with functions that include energy storage and dissipation as well as the secretion of bioactive molecules. As the largest endocrine organ in the body, the adipose tissue produces diverse bioactive molecules, including peptides, metabolites, and extracellular vesicles, which communicate with and modulate the function of other organs. In recent years, lipid metabolites, also known as lipokines, have emerged as key signaling molecules that actively participate in multiple metabolic processes. This review highlights the latest advances in adipose tissue-derived lipokines and their underlying cellular and molecular functions. Furthermore, we offer our perspective on the future directions for adipose-derived bioactive lipids and potential therapeutic implications for obesity and its associated complications.

Decreased IGF1R attenuates senescence and improves function in pancreatic ß-cells.

Introduction: The enhanced ß-cell senescence that accompanies insulin resistance and aging contributes to cellular dysfunction and loss of transcriptional identity leading to type 2 diabetes (T2D). While senescence is among the 12 recognized hallmarks of aging, its relation to other hallmarks including altered nutrient sensing (insulin/IGF1 pathway) in ß-cells is not fully understood. We previously reported that an increased expression of IGF1R in mouse and human ß-cells is a marker of older ß-cells; however, its contribution to age-related dysfunction and cellular senescence remains to be determined. Methods: In this study, we explored the direct role of IGF1R in ß-cell function and senescence using two independent mouse models with decreased IGF1/IGF1R signaling: a) Ames Dwarf mice (Dwarf +/+), which lack growth hormone and therefore have reduced circulating levels of IGF1, and b) inducible ß-cell-specific IGF1R knockdown (ßIgf1rKD) mice. Results: Compared to Dwarf+/- mice, Dwarf+/+ mice had lower body and pancreas weight, lower circulating IGF1 and insulin levels, and lower IGF1R and p21Cip1 protein expression in ß-cells, suggesting the suppression of senescence. Adult ßIgf1rKD mice showed improved glucose clearance and glucose-induced insulin secretion, accompanied by decreased p21Cip1 protein expression in ß-cells. RNA-Seq of islets isolated from these ßIgf1rKD mice revealed the restoration of three signaling pathways known to be downregulated by aging: sulfide oxidation, autophagy, and mTOR signaling. Additionally, deletion of IGF1R in mouse ß-cells increased transcription of genes important for maintaining ß-cell identity and function, such as Mafa, Nkx6.1, and Kcnj11, while decreasing senescence-related genes, such as Cdkn2a, Il1b, and Serpine 1. Decreased senescence and improved insulin-secretory function of ß-cells were also evident when the ßIgf1rKD mice were fed a high-fat diet (HFD; 60% kcal from fat, for 5 weeks). Discussion: These results suggest that IGF1R signaling plays a causal role in aging-induced ß-cell dysfunction. Our data also demonstrate a relationship between decreased IGF1R signaling and suppressed cellular senescence in pancreatic ß-cells. Future studies can further our understanding of the interaction between senescence and aging, developing interventions that restore ß-cell function and identity, therefore preventing the progression to T2D.

m 6 A mRNA Methylation in Brown Adipose Tissue Regulates Systemic Insulin Sensitivity via an Inter-Organ Prostaglandin Signaling Axis.

Brown adipose tissue (BAT) has the capacity to regulate systemic metabolism through the secretion of signaling lipids. N6-methyladenosine (m 6 A) is the most prevalent and abundant post-transcriptional mRNA modification and has been reported to regulate BAT adipogenesis and energy expenditure. In this study, we demonstrate that the absence of m 6 A methyltransferase-like 14 (METTL14), modifies the BAT secretome to initiate inter-organ communication to improve systemic insulin sensitivity. Importantly, these phenotypes are independent of UCP1-mediated energy expenditure and thermogenesis. Using lipidomics, we identified prostaglandin E2 (PGE2) and prostaglandin F2a (PGF2a) as M14 KO -BAT-secreted insulin sensitizers. Notably, circulatory PGE2 and PGF2a levels are inversely correlated with insulin sensitivity in humans. Furthermore, in vivo administration of PGE2 and PGF2a in high-fat diet-induced insulin-resistant obese mice recapitulates the phenotypes of METTL14 deficient animals. PGE2 or PGF2a improves insulin signaling by suppressing the expression of specific AKT phosphatases. Mechanistically, METTL14-mediated m 6 A installation promotes decay of transcripts encoding prostaglandin synthases and their regulators in human and mouse brown adipocytes in a YTHDF2/3-dependent manner. Taken together, these findings reveal a novel biological mechanism through which m 6 A-dependent regulation of BAT secretome regulates systemic insulin sensitivity in mice and humans. Highlights: Mettl14 KO -BAT improves systemic insulin sensitivity via inter-organ communication; PGE2 and PGF2a are BAT-secreted insulin sensitizers and browning inducers;PGE2 and PGF2a sensitize insulin responses through PGE2-EP-pAKT and PGF2a-FP-AKT axis; METTL14-mediated m 6 A installation selectively destabilizes prostaglandin synthases and their regulator transcripts; Targeting METTL14 in BAT has therapeutic potential to enhance systemic insulin sensitivity.

Generation of Brown Fat-Specific Knockout Mice Using a Combined Cre-LoxP, CRISPR-Cas9, and Adeno-Associated Virus Single-Guide RNA System.

Brown adipose tissue (BAT) is an adipose depot specialized in energy dissipation that can also serve as an endocrine organ via the secretion of bioactive molecules. The creation of BAT-specific knockout mice is one of the most popular approaches for understanding the contribution of a gene of interest to BAT-mediated energy regulation. The conventional gene targeting strategy utilizing the Cre-LoxP system has been the principal approach to generate tissue-specific knockout mice. However, this approach is time-consuming and tedious. Here, we describe a protocol for the rapid and efficient knockout of a gene of interest in BAT using a combined Cre-LoxP, CRISPR-Cas9, and adeno-associated virus (AAV) single-guide RNA (sgRNA) system. The interscapular BAT is located in the deep layer between the muscles. Thus, the BAT must be exposed in order to inject the AAV precisely and directly into the BAT within the visual field. Appropriate surgical handling is crucial to prevent damage to the sympathetic nerves and vessels, such as the Sultzer's vein that connects to the BAT. To minimize tissue damage, there is a critical need to understand the three-dimensional anatomical location of the BAT and the surgical skills required in the technical steps. This protocol highlights the key technical procedures, including the design of sgRNAs targeting the gene of interest, the preparation of AAV-sgRNA particles, and the surgery for the direct microinjection of AAV into both BAT lobes for generating BAT-specific knockout mice, which can be broadly applied to study the biological functions of genes in BAT.

Brown adipose tissue-derived MaR2 contributes to cold-induced resolution of inflammation.

Obesity induces chronic inflammation resulting in insulin resistance and metabolic disorders. Cold exposure can improve insulin sensitivity in humans and rodents, but the mechanisms have not been fully elucidated. Here, we find that cold resolves obesity-induced inflammation and insulin resistance and improves glucose tolerance in diet-induced obese mice. The beneficial effects of cold exposure on improving obesity-induced inflammation and insulin resistance depend on brown adipose tissue (BAT) and liver. Using targeted liquid chromatography with tandem mass spectrometry, we discovered that cold and ß3-adrenergic stimulation promote BAT to produce maresin 2 (MaR2), a member of the specialized pro-resolving mediators of bioactive lipids that play a role in the resolution of inflammation. Notably, MaR2 reduces inflammation in obesity in part by targeting macrophages in the liver. Thus, BAT-derived MaR2 could contribute to the beneficial effects of BAT activation in resolving obesity-induced inflammation and may inform therapeutic approaches to combat obesity and its complications.

Transplantation of Brown Adipose Tissue with the Ability of Converting Omega-6 to Omega-3 Polyunsaturated Fatty Acids Counteracts High-Fat-Induced Metabolic Abnormalities in Mice.

A balanced omega (ω)-6/ω-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs) ratio has been linked to metabolic health and the prevention of chronic diseases. Brown adipose tissue (BAT) specializes in energy expenditure and secretes signaling molecules that regulate metabolism via inter-organ crosstalk. Recent studies have uncovered that BAT produces different PUFA species and circulating oxylipin levels are correlated with BAT-mediated energy expenditure in mice and humans. However, the impact of BAT ω-6/ω-3 PUFAs on metabolic phenotype has not been fully elucidated. The Fat-1 transgenic mice can convert ω-6 to ω-3 PUFAs. Here, we demonstrated that mice receiving Fat-1 BAT transplants displayed better glucose tolerance and higher energy expenditure. Expression of genes involved in thermogenesis and nutrient utilization was increased in the endogenous BAT of mice receiving Fat-1 BAT, suggesting that the transplants may activate recipients' BAT. Using targeted lipidomic analysis, we found that the levels of several ω-6 oxylipins were significantly reduced in the circulation of mice receiving Fat-1 BAT transplants than in mice with wild-type BAT transplants. The major altered oxylipins between the WT and Fat-1 BAT transplantation were ω-6 arachidonic acid-derived oxylipins via the lipoxygenase pathway. Taken together, these findings suggest an important role of BAT-derived oxylipins in combating obesity-related metabolic disorders.

Cell-autonomous light sensitivity via Opsin3 regulates fuel utilization in brown adipocytes.

Opsin3 (Opn3) is a transmembrane heptahelical G protein-coupled receptor (GPCR) with the potential to produce a nonvisual photoreceptive effect. Interestingly, anatomical profiling of GPCRs reveals that Opn3 mRNA is highly expressed in adipose tissue. The photosensitive functions of Opn3 in mammals are poorly understood, and whether Opn3 has a role in fat is entirely unknown. In this study, we found that Opn3-knockout (Opn3-KO) mice were prone to diet-induced obesity and insulin resistance. At the cellular level, Opn3-KO brown adipocytes cultured in darkness had decreased glucose uptake and lower nutrient-induced mitochondrial respiration than wild-type (WT) cells. Light exposure promoted mitochondrial activity and glucose uptake in WT adipocytes but not in Opn3-KO cells. Brown adipocytes carrying a defective mutation in Opn3's putative G protein-binding domain also exhibited a reduction in glucose uptake and mitochondrial respiration in darkness. Using RNA-sequencing, we identified several novel light-sensitive and Opn3-dependent molecular signatures in brown adipocytes. Importantly, direct exposure of brown adipose tissue (BAT) to light in living mice significantly enhanced thermogenic capacity of BAT, and this effect was diminished in Opn3-KO animals. These results uncover a previously unrecognized cell-autonomous, light-sensing mechanism in brown adipocytes via Opn3-GPCR signaling that can regulate fuel metabolism and mitochondrial respiration. Our work also provides a molecular basis for developing light-based treatments for obesity and its related metabolic disorders.

Neuropeptide Y modulates membrane excitability in neonatal rat mesencephalic V neurons.

Neuropeptide Y (NPY) is one of a number of neuropeptides with powerful orexigenic effects. Intracerebroventricular administration of NPY induces increases in food intake and alters feeding rate. Besides it role in feeding behavior, NPY also has significant effects on neuronal systems related to other spontaneous behaviors such as rearing and grooming. In the present study, we examined the direct effects of NPY on mesencephalic V neurons (Mes V), which are important sensory neurons involved in oral motor reflexes and rhythmical jaw movements, as well as masticatory proprioception. Coronal brain slices were prepared from neonatal Sprague-Dawley rats (P3-17) and whole-cell patch clamp recordings were obtained from Mes V neurons. Bath application of NPY depolarized the membrane potential and induced inward current in most neurons. Application of NPY shortened the duration of the afterhyperpolarization following an action potential, and increased the mean spike frequency during repetitive discharge. In those neurons which exhibited rhythmical burst discharge in response to maintained current injection, the bursting frequency was also increased. These effects were mediated predominately by both Y1 and Y5 receptors.

Osteopontin-derived synthetic peptide SVVYGLR has potent utility in the functional regeneration of oral and maxillofacial skeletal muscles.

Oral and maxillofacial skeletal muscles are critical for oral motor functions, and severe damage to these muscles by trauma or surgery may lead to persistent functional impairment. This study investigated the effects of SVVYGLR (SV) peptide, a thrombin-cleaved osteopontin-derived motif, on histopathological wound healing and functional repair after severe injury of skeletal muscles. A rat model of volumetric muscle loss bilateral masseter muscle was developed. A single dose of SV-peptide or phosphate-buffered saline (PBS) was separately injected into the injured muscle belly. Histopathological and functional analyses were performed 1-8 weeks after the treatment. Behavioral analysis during free-feeding revealed that the feeding rate markedly increased in the SV-peptide group, in contrast, the PBS group showed fewer changes after the injury. Electromyogram recordings from injured muscles demonstrated amplification of rectified burst activity over time accompanied by increased maximal amplitude and duration in the SV-peptide group, in contrast, the PBS group showed moderate changes. A lissajous figure for bilateral masseter muscle activities also revealed superior functional recovery by the SV-peptide treatment. The SV-peptide also facilitated regeneration of muscles composed of matured myofibers with a greater diameter compared to the PBS group. In addition, granulation in the earlier period and fibrosis in the later period of wound healing were significantly inhibited by the SV-peptide treatment but not by the PBS treatment. Therefore, local application of the SV-peptide could help facilitate regeneration of muscles, inhibition of fibrosis, and improvement of functional impairment of oral and maxillofacial skeletal muscles damaged by severe trauma or surgery.

Olfactory stimulation modulates the blood glucose level in rats.

In both humans and animals, chemosensory stimuli, including odors and tastes, induce a variety of physiologic and mental responses related to energy homeostasis, such as glucose kinetics. The present study examined the importance of olfactory function in glucose kinetics following ingestion behavior in a simplified experimental scenario. We applied a conventional glucose tolerance test to rats with and without olfactory function and analyzed subsequent blood glucose (BG) curves in detail. The loss of olfactory input due to experimental damage to the olfactory mucosa induced a marked decrease in the area under the BG curve. Exposure to grapefruit odor and its main component, limonene, both of which activate the sympathetic nerves, before glucose loading also greatly depressed the BG curve. Pre-loading exposure to lavender odor, a parasympathetic activator, stabilized the BG level. These results suggest that olfactory function is important for proper glucose kinetics after glucose intake and that certain fragrances could be utilized as tools for controlling BG levels.

The utility of vacuum-assisted closure therapy for skin necrosis secondary to cervical abscess in the elderly.

Vacuum-assisted closure (VAC) systems have been used as negative-pressure dressings in various fields, including decubitus ulcer, trauma, and wound dehiscence. To the best of our knowledge, few reports have examined the utility of VAC therapy for neck abscess in an oldest-old patient. We present here a rare case of neck abscess secondary to parotid abscess, resulting in extensive skin necrosis. Successful management included emergency drainage following epithelial induction through a VAC system without using skin grafting. Two months after surgical intervention, the cervical wound was completely healed without a solid scar. We consider the VAC therapy to be a key factor leading to the complete healing in the elderly under low serum albumin condition.

Disrupted normal ingestion during glucose intake modulates glucose kinetics in humans.

This study aims to reveal the importance of chemical senses in glucose kinetics and autonomic nervous activity by imposing interventions during glucose intake. The glucose-loading test was applied to seven healthy individuals. Three successive oral glucose-loadings induced a gradual downward shift in the blood glucose curves (BGC) together with increased salivary α-amylase activity (s-AMY) and positively correlated with satisfaction scores. On the other hands, adding a pleasant flavor given during the third trial increased the BGC to the same level as that during the first loading with decreased s-AMY value. Direct intragastric delivery of glucose or clipping the nose induced a downward shift in both BGC and serum insulin response curves (IRC), resulting in a decrease of the area under the BGC, positively correlated with the area under the IRC and satisfaction scores, respectively. The present study suggests that disrupted normal ingestion during glucose intake modulates glucose kinetics along with increased s-AMY values, indicating enhanced sympathetic nervous activity and favorable chemical senses are important in maintaining glucose kinetics.

Predictors of the necessity for lymph node biopsy of cervical lymphadenopathy.

PURPOSE: Enlargement of cervical lymph nodes is required for early and accurate diagnosis of malignant lymphoma (ML). Lymph node biopsy is still indispensable for accurate diagnosis of lymph node enlargement in the lateral neck. MATERIAL AND METHODS: We retrospectively investigated the characteristics of lymph nodes on both ultrasonography (US) and computed tomography (CT), and blood biomarkers including serum thymidine kinase (TK) and soluble interleukin-2 receptor (sIL-2R) in 19 patients who underwent cervical lymph node biopsy. RESULTS: Pathological diagnosis was ML in 8 patients, reactive lymphadenopathy (RL) in 8, and purulent lymphadenitis (PL) in 3. TK levels were significantly higher in patients with ML than in patients with RL, demonstrating positive correlations with sIL-2R and lymph node size on CT image. The shape of lymph nodes on US in all of the 8 patients diagnosed with RL was flat, whereas the shape in 7 of 8 patients diagnosed with ML was round. Lymph node size ≥19.5 mm at an axial section on CT image was used as a cut-off value to differentiate ML from other pathologies, offering 90.9% sensitivity and 87.5% specificity. CONCLUSION: Sonographic and CT evaluation combined with high TK level might be useful in determining the need for early biopsy.

Zinc deficiency with reduced mastication impairs spatial memory in young adult mice.

Sufficient oral microelements such as zinc and fully chewing of foods are required to maintain cognitive function despite aging. No knowledge exists about the combination of factors such as zinc deficiency and reduced mastication on learning and memory. Here we show that tooth extraction only in 8-week-old mice did not change the density of glial fibrillary acidic protein-labeled astrocytes in the hippocampus or spatial memory parameters. However, tooth extraction followed by zinc deprivation strongly impaired spatial memory and led to an increase in astrocytic density in the hippocampal CA1 region. The impaired spatial performance in the zinc-deficient only (ZD) mice also coincided well with the increase in the astrocytic density in the hippocampal CA1 region. After switching both zinc-deficient groups to a normal diet with sufficient zinc, spatial memory recovered, and more time was spent in the quadrant with the goal in the probe test in the mice with tooth extraction followed by zinc deprivation (EZD) compared to the ZD mice. Interestingly, we found no differences in astrocytic density in the CA1 region among all groups at 22 weeks of age. Furthermore, the escape latency in a visible probe test at all times was longer in zinc-deficient groups than the others and demonstrated a negative correlation with body weight. No significant differences in escape latency were observed in the visible probe test among the ZD, EZD, and normal-fed control at 4 weeks (CT4w) groups in which body weight was standardized to that of the EZD group, or in the daily reduction in latency between the normal-fed control and CT4w groups. Our data showed that zinc-deficient feeding during a young age impairs spatial memory performance and leads to an increase in astrocytic density in the hippocampal CA1 region and that zinc-sufficient feeding is followed by recovery of the impaired spatial memory along with changes in astrocytic density. The combination of the two factors, zinc deficiency and reduced mastication, but not body weight, may inhibit recovery of impaired spatial learning. A zinc-sufficient diet is pivotal for maintaining spatial memory.

Neuropeptide-Y modulates eating patterns and masticatory muscle activity in rats.

Neuropeptide Y (NPY) is a powerful orexigenic peptide secreted by hypothalamic neurons. The present study investigates how NPY injection into the lateral ventricle modulates masticatory movements and eating behavior. Behavioral experiments showed that cumulative food intake over a 4-h period and latency to eating were increased and decreased, respectively, in NPY-injected rats compared to saline-injected control rats. The feeding time for 2 g pellets was shorter in NPY-injected rats and resulted in an increased feeding rate, with more potent effects observed at 1 µg compared to 10 µg NPY. After injection of 10 µg NPY, a greater number of bouts with shorter average bout duration for eating 2g, compared to 1 µg NPY, were observed. Furthermore, 10 µg NPY injection resulted in prolonged periods of moving and shortened sleep and grooming. Electromyography recordings from the digastric and masseter muscles showed two distinct patterns of bursts corresponding to the gnawing and chewing phases. After the injection of 1 µg NPY, the burst magnitude of masseter muscle during the gnawing phase increased, reflecting strong jaw-closing muscle activity. The relative integrated EMG of masseter muscle in both phases was smaller following injection of 10 µg NPY in comparison with that of 1 µg NPY. The present study indicates that 1 µg NPY administration promotes feeding behavior together with increased feeding rate and powerful jaw-closing muscle activity; whereas 10 µg NPY administration lowers jaw-closing muscle activity during biting and produces mastication with shorter and more frequent feeding bouts than 1 µg NPY.

Clinical characteristics of angioleiomyoma of the hard palate: report of a case and an analysis of the reported cases.

Angioleiomyoma is a rare, benign tumor often found in the uterine myometrium, gastrointestinal tract, and skin and seldom observed in the oral and maxillofacial region. The most common site of occurrence in the oral cavity is the lip, followed by the palate, buccal mucosa, and tongue. The number of reports associated with angioleiomyoma arising from the hard palate is very small. The tumor is histologically characterized by the proliferation of mature smooth muscle cells and numerous blood vessels. When the diagnosis is difficult, specific immunohistochemistry is used. This report describes a case of angioleiomyoma in which there was a chronically increasing lesion for 5 years on the left hard palate and the means for making a definitive diagnosis was based on previous reports on angioleiomyoma of the palate.

Protein kinase A regulates the long-term potentiation of intrinsic excitability in neonatal trigeminal motoneurons.

Although much is known about neuronal plasticity in the mammalian hippocampus and other cortical neurons, the subcellular mechanisms underlying plasticity at the level of motor pools are less well characterized. Protein kinase A (PKA) activation plays an essential role in long-term potentiation of intrinsic excitability (LTP-IE) in layer V (LV) visual cortical neurons and may be involved in other systems as well. Trigeminal motoneurons (TMNs) participate in rhythmical motor behaviors, such as suckling, chewing, and swallowing. Using the whole-cell patch clamp method and various kinase inhibitors and activators, we investigated the mechanism of LTP-IE in neonatal rat TMNs. Ca(2+) depletion using ACSF with 0mM Ca(2+) or the Ca(2+) chelator bis-(o-aminophenoxy)-N,N,N',N'-tetraacetic acid (BAPTA) blocked the long-lasting increase in intrinsic excitability in TMNs, showing that intracellular Ca(2+) during the induction protocol is necessary for the induction of LTP-IE. We next used specific inhibitors of PKA, protein kinase C, and calcium/calmodulin-dependent protein kinase II during the induction protocol. Only the PKA inhibitor H-89 blocked the increase in the firing rate induced by the induction protocol. In addition, forskolin, which activates PKA, induced a long-lasting increase in excitability that resembled the excitability produced by the induction protocol. Thus, we conclude that LTP-IE in TMNs is calcium-dependent, and PKA is the primary regulator of this process.

The odor of Osmanthus fragrans attenuates food intake.

Odors have been shown to exert an influence on various physiological and behavioral activities. However, little is known whether or not odor stimulation directly affects the levels of feeding-related neuropeptides. Here we show that the neural transmission by Osmanthus fragrans (OSM) decreased the mRNA expression of orexigenic neuropeptides, such as agouti-related protein, neuropeptide Y, melanin-concentrating hormone and prepro-orexin, while increased anorexigenic neuropeptides, such as cocaine- and amphetamine-regulated transcript and proopiomelanocortin in rats. The decreased number of orexin-immunoreactive neurons in the hypothalamus coincided well with the OSM-induced decreases in the expression of prepro-orexin mRNA. This study demonstrates that the OSM odor, which is known to have a mild sedative effect, decreases the motivation to eat, food intake and body weight, accompanied by sluggish masticatory movements. The data suggest that these effects are due to suppression of orexigenic neuropeptides and activation of anorexigenic neuropeptides in the hypothalamus.