Generation time-out grows up: young adults' reports about childhood time-out use and their mental health, attachment, and emotion regulation.

Time-out (TO) is a widely utilised parental discipline technique with a strong evidence-base that nonetheless has attracted controversy regarding potential adverse effects on mental health in developing children. Associations between TO implementation and mental health outcomes have rarely been investigated, especially through the eyes of children who grew up experiencing TO. This study recruited 407 university students (Study 1) and a community sample of 535 young adults (Study 2); both samples aged 18-30 years. Young adults were surveyed on their retrospective reports of childhood TO experience, childhood experiences of adversity, perceived parenting style and parental attachment, and their current mental health outcomes (attachment style, emotion regulation and mental health). In Study 1, 334 (82.1%) young adults reported experiencing TO in childhood, but with widely varied implementation that differed considerably from its evidence-based ideal. Reports of more TO appropriate implementation were associated with less avoidant attachment, better mental health, and emotion regulation, over and above the effects associated with authoritative parenting and secure attachment in childhood. While exposure to childhood adversity was associated with poorer adulthood outcomes, TO implementation did not moderate the association. Study 2 replicated most findings from Study 1, except that appropriate TO implementation displayed a positive association with mental health and no associations with anxious and avoidant attachment and emotion regulation. These findings suggest the safety of TO use with young children, including those who experienced childhood adversity, and highlight the importance of disseminating sufficient parenting information on TO in the community.

Global Workforce Development in Father Engagement Competencies for Family-Based Interventions Using an Online Training Program: A Mixed-Method Feasibility Study.

Global access to practitioner training in the clinical engagement of fathers in family-based interventions is limited. The current study evaluated the feasibility of training practitioners in Canada and UK using online training developed in Australia by examining improvements in practitioner confidence and competence in father engagement, training satisfaction, qualitative feedback, and benchmarking results to those from an Australian sample. Practitioners were recruited to participate in a 2-h online training program through health services and charity organisations. The online program required practitioners to watch a video and complete self-reflection exercises in a digital workbook. Pre- and post-training measures were collected immediately before and after the online training program. The results indicated significantly large improvements in self-reported confidence and competence in engaging fathers following training, with levels of improvement similar to those found in Australia. Training satisfaction was high and qualitative feedback suggested providing local resources and increasing representation of social diversity could improve training relevance in local contexts. The findings suggest online training in father engagement can contribute to global workforce development in improving practitioners' skills in engaging fathers in family-based interventions.

Building a National Clinical Trials Network in child and youth mental health: Growing Minds Australia.

Many fields of medicine have benefitted from the formation of clinical trials networks, whereby researchers come together on a large scale to identify high-priority questions and implement coordinated clinical trials. Clinical trials networks in the field of mental health, however, have been rare and largely absent from the Australian context. Here, we present an overview of the newly formed Growing Minds Australia Clinical Trials Network, which represents the first comprehensive clinical trials network in child and youth mental health in Australia. The 60 principal members of the Growing Minds Australia Clinical Trials Network represent teams across 19 diverse areas related to specific forms of psychopathology (e.g. internalising, externalising, neurodevelopmental disorders, early psychosis, substance use), specific research methods and processes (e.g. health economics, eHealth, implementation science) and specialised areas of practice (e.g. school-based systems, parenting interventions, Indigenous mental health, refugee families). Core functions of the Growing Minds Australia Clinical Trials Network include collaborative trial protocol development; peer review, prioritisation and endorsement of proposed trials; training; development of clinical guidelines; and consumer representation. The research by the clinical trials network will encompass the populations typically accessing youth mental health services, while placing a key emphasis on the early periods of life, and the role of parents and caregivers as critical partners in the co-design of research and the delivery of intervention and prevention strategies. The structures and processes built into the network are designed to coordinate collaboration between diverse stakeholders and ensure that provisions for translation are integrated into research from the outset. In this paper, we examine the potential for a dedicated clinical trials network to initiate fundamental improvement in child and youth mental health systems, and discuss the unique and complex challenges associated with establishing such an initiative.

ParentWorks: Evaluation of an Online, Father-Inclusive, Universal Parenting Intervention to Reduce Child Conduct Problems.

Evidence-based parenting interventions are effective in reducing conduct problems, yet these interventions have limited reach, and few involve the participation of fathers. This paper describes the outcomes of an open trial of ParentWorks, a universal, online, father-inclusive parenting intervention aiming to decrease childhood behavioural problems and promote positive parenting in mothers and fathers. A total of 388 families (456 individual parents; 36.6% fathers) were included in the study. Mixed model analyses showed significant decreases in child emotional/behavioural problems, dysfunctional parenting, interparental conflict, and parental mental health problems. The baseline severity of child behavioural problems significantly moderated the effects on child outcomes so that children with higher levels of problems benefitted more from the program. Participation of both caregivers in two-parent families, as well as parent sex, did not significantly affect the program outcomes. Results provide initial empirical support for the universal, self-directed, online parenting intervention, in addressing both child behavioural problems and parenting outcomes. Trial registration: ACTRN12616001223426, registered 05/09/2016.

Therapist-assisted online treatment for child conduct problems in rural and urban families: Two randomized controlled trials.

OBJECTIVE: We examined the relative efficacy of an online versus face-to-face (FTF) parenting intervention for reducing the severity of child conduct problems and related parent and child outcomes in 2 randomized controlled trials. METHOD: In Study 1, rural families (n = 133) with a child 3-9 years of age with a full or subclinical primary diagnosis of oppositional defiant or conduct disorder traveled to Sydney, Australia for a comprehensive assessment and randomization to receive either AccessEI, a 6-10 week online therapist-assisted parenting program, or FTF treatment, whereby they received the same program presented FTF during a 1-week treatment. To control for unavoidable treatment dosage differences in the first study, Study 2 was conducted in which urban families (n = 73) with a child aged 3 to 14 years meeting similar criteria as Study 1 were randomized to receive AccessEI versus FTF treatment. RESULTS: In both studies, improvements in severity of child diagnoses and maternal measures of child behavior showed very large effect sizes for both treatments at posttreatment and 3-month follow-up and did not differ across treatment conditions. There were moderate effect sizes for improvements in parent mental health and no differences across treatment conditions. CONCLUSIONS: It is concluded that the effects of the therapist-assisted online parenting interventions for the treatment of child conduct problems were similar to a FTF intervention, providing evidence for the effectiveness of an accessible treatment for rural and remote families. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2019 APA, all rights reserved).

What is it to discipline a child: What should it be? A reanalysis of time-out from the perspective of child mental health, attachment, and trauma.

Parental discipline strategies are a necessary and critical aspect of positive child development. Their qualities confer risk versus protection for the development of mental health problems. Time-out from positive reinforcement is now one of the most common and well-researched discipline procedures across the world, with overwhelming evidence to support its efficacy and acceptability. It has also recently attracted considerable criticism from writers evoking child well-being considerations based on attachment theory. The main concern is that the removal of a child to time-out exposes the child to a break in attachment security and, for children with trauma histories, potentially causes harm. Here, we consider what a discipline strategy should be from a mental health perspective and, utilizing the best available models of developmental mental health and psychopathology, derive five axioms for judging and guiding the worth and acceptability of any particular discipline strategy. We then use these axioms to evaluate and specify how time-out can be used in a way that maximizes positive child outcomes, and then review its use with children who have experienced complex trauma. We show that time-out, when conceptualized and enacted consistently with contemporary models of learning, attachment, self-regulation, and family systems theory, is actually a positive perturbation to these systems that can rapidly remediate problems the child is experiencing, and thereby generally enhances child well-being. Clinical, research, and policy implications are briefly discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2019 APA, all rights reserved).

Perspectives on ParentWorks: Learnings from the development and national roll-out of a self-directed online parenting intervention.

Online parenting interventions are an increasingly viable alternative to face-to-face programs, as they can potentially overcome barriers to participation and increase program reach. The current paper describes learnings from the design, development and dissemination of ParentWorks, a self-directed online parenting intervention designed to be inclusive of both mothers and fathers. ParentWorks was promoted via a national media campaign and was accessible to all Australian parents through a dedicated website. Participants created a user account, engaged in a series of video modules, and completed assessment measures at pre-, post-program and 3-month follow-up. For two-caregiver families, parents were encouraged to participate together using a shared account. There was no direct practitioner support, although a range of innovative automated features were included to enhance participant motivation and encourage program completion. Several key lessons emerged from program development and implementation. These relate primarily to design and content of the program website, user account functionality, program structure and features, and data collection. Further research is needed particularly with regard to methods for increasing participant retention in self-directed online programs. The learnings described here will be relevant to those researching and developing online parenting interventions as well as other online mental health interventions aiming to reach a large population sample.

A national child mental health literacy initiative is needed to reduce childhood mental health disorders.

Half of all lifetime mental health disorders emerge in childhood, so intervening in the childhood years is critical to prevent chronic trajectories of mental health disorders. The prevalence of child mental health disorders is not decreasing despite the increased availability of evidence-based interventions. One key reason for the high prevalence and low treatment uptake may be low levels of child mental health literacy in the general community. Mental health literacy refers to knowledge and beliefs about mental health disorders that aid in their recognition, prevention and management. There is emerging evidence of poor recognition of child mental health problems in the community and low levels of parental knowledge about how to seek help, along with high levels of stigmatising attitudes. Although Australia has been a world leader in research and practice in improving mental health literacy for adolescent and adult mental health disorders, particularly depression and anxiety, mental health literacy for childhood disorders has been largely overlooked. In order to improve knowledge of child mental health disorders, reduce stigma, improve appropriate help-seeking and impact on the prevalence of child mental health disorders, we argue that a national initiative focussing on increasing mental health literacy for childhood disorders is urgently needed.

Keeping Parents Involved: Predicting Attrition in a Self-Directed, Online Program for Childhood Conduct Problems.

Positive parenting programs have a strong evidence base for improving parent-child relationships, strengthening families, and reducing childhood behavior disturbances. Their reach is less than optimal however, with only a minority of families in need of help participating. Father involvement is particularly low. Online, self-directed programs have the potential to improve participation rates. This article examines risk factors for dropout/attrition from a free, evidence-based, self-directed, father-inclusive parenting program, Parentworks, which was made available across Australia. Parents (N = 2,967) enrolled in the program and completed preintervention questionnaires. There was a steady and consistent loss of participants through the sequence of core program modules, until a final sample of 218 completed the postintervention questionnaire. A range of demographic and parent and child variables were tested as predictors of 3 subgroups: nonstarters, partial completers, and full completers. Nonstarters (n = 1,625) tended to have older children with fewer behavioral problems and report higher psychopathology and dysfunctional parenting than those who partially (n = 1,124) or fully completed. Contrary to findings from face-to-face research, single parents had the highest completion rates. Coparticipation of partners and interparental conflict had no impact on completion rates. Fathers participated at relatively high levels. Results show that parents with the greatest need tend to engage with online programs, and online programs may be particularly useful for fathers, single parents, and those in conflicted relationships. Directions for future program design and research are discussed.

Evaluation of 'The Father Effect' Media Campaign to Increase Awareness of, and Participation in, an Online Father-Inclusive Parenting Program.

There is substantial evidence that parenting programs are effective in improving parenting and child mental health outcomes. While there is increasing focus on delivering parenting interventions online to increase their reach and dissemination, fathers are underrepresented in all formats of parenting programs. However, research suggests that father participation is important for intervention effectiveness. This study evaluated the effectiveness of a media campaign for increasing awareness of, and participation in, an online father-inclusive parenting program called 'ParentWorks'. An 8-week campaign was conducted in Australia via social media channels, digital display advertising, digital television, and radio. To assess the impact of the campaign, data were obtained from caregivers registering for ParentWorks during the campaign period (n = 848) and an 8-week comparison period that occurred 3 months later (n = 254). Additionally, a nationally representative sample of 2021 caregivers of children aged 2-16 years completed an online survey. Survey questions asked about exposure to the campaign, registration for participation in ParentWorks, and knowledge of the importance of father participation in parenting programs. Three times as many caregivers registered during the 8-week media campaign compared to the comparison period, and a significantly greater proportion of male caregivers registered in the campaign versus the comparison period. The online survey found that 11% of caregivers reported exposure to the campaign, and significantly more fathers than mothers reported exposure. Results showed that those who were exposed to the campaign were significantly more likely to endorse the importance of father participation in parenting programs, than those not exposed to the campaign. The findings indicate that media campaigns appear to be an effective method of increasing awareness of online parenting programs and enhancing rates of father involvement.

Development and Psychometric Evaluation of the Father Engagement Questionnaire.

While there has been increasing interest in promoting father engagement in parenting interventions for child wellbeing, both research and practice endeavors have been hindered by a lack of a measure of father engagement practices. This paper reports the development and evaluation of a comprehensive, practitioner-report measure of father engagement practices--the Father Engagement Questionnaire (FEQ). Practitioners (N = 589; 84.5% females; mean age = 38.56) involved in delivering parenting interventions in Australia completed the FEQ, along with background demographics and questions regarding their own and organization's practice. A separate sample of 28 practitioners completed the FEQ twice, with a two-week interim, to assess test-retest stability of the measure. Exploratory factor analysis revealed five factors corresponding to the measure's five intended content areas: Confidence in Working with Fathers, Competence in Using Engagement Strategies, Perceived Effectiveness of Engagement Strategies, Frequency of Strategy Use, and Organizational Practices for Father Engagement. Each of these scales demonstrated adequate internal consistency reliability and test-retest stability. As the five scales appear to be related but distinct, it is recommended that the FEQ is used as a multidimensional measure of father engagement. In terms of predictive validity, higher scores on the Confidence in Working with Fathers, Frequency of Strategy Use, and Organizational Practices for Father Engagement scales were associated with a higher likelihood of practitioner-reported father attendance. The results provide support for adequate psychometric properties of the FEQ as a research and clinical tool for assessing and monitoring father engagement practices.

A benchmarking study of father involvement in Australian child mental health services.

Fathers are underrepresented in interventions focussing on child well-being, yet research suggests their involvement may be critical to enhancing intervention effectiveness. This study aimed to provide the first Australian benchmark of rates of father attendance across several child mental health services. Retrospective casefile reviews were conducted to obtain data on father and mother attendance at 10 Australian child mental health services. A total of 2128 casefile records were retrospectively examined to extract family-level data. The main outcome measures were rates of father and mother attendance at sessions involving parents, and rates of father- and mother-instigated referral to services. Across services, fathers attended on average 48.2% (range 39.7% to 72.0%) of total parent sessions, with an average of 68.4% (range 53.1% to 88.1%) of fathers attending at least one session. Mothers attended sessions at significantly higher rates; an average of 92.8% of total parent sessions and 96.9% attendance for at least one session. For self-referred families, on average 12.6% of referrals were from fathers, and 87.4% were from mothers. These results indicate that rates of father attendance at Australian child mental health services vary, but are significantly lower than attendance rates for mothers. This may compromise the quality and outcomes of child mental health services in Australia. Routine monitoring of rates of father attendance is needed, as are strategies to enhance father engagement.

Study protocol: evaluation of an online, father-inclusive, universal parenting intervention to reduce child externalising behaviours and improve parenting practices.

BACKGROUND: Parenting interventions that focus on enhancing the quality and consistency of parenting are effective for preventing and reducing externalising problems in children. There has been a recent shift towards online delivery of parenting interventions in order to increase their reach and impact on the population prevalence of child externalising problems. Parenting interventions have low rates of father participation yet research suggests that father involvement may be critical to the success of the intervention. Despite this, no online parenting interventions have been specifically developed to meet the needs and preferences of fathers, as well as mothers. This paper describes the protocol of a study examining the effectiveness of an online, father-inclusive parenting intervention called 'ParentWorks', which will be delivered as a universal intervention to Australian families. METHODS/DESIGN: A single group clinical trial will be conducted to examine the effectiveness of ParentWorks for reducing child externalising problems and improving parenting, as well as to explore the impact of father engagement (in two-parent families) on child outcomes. Australian parents/caregivers with a child aged 2-16 years will be recruited. Participants will provide informed consent, complete pre-intervention measures and will then complete the intervention, which consists of five compulsory video modules and three optional modules. The primary outcomes for this study are changes in child externalising behaviour, positive and dysfunctional parenting practices and parental conflict, and the secondary outcome is changes in parental mental health. Demographic information, satisfaction with the intervention, and measures of parental engagement will also be collected. Questionnaire data will be collected at pre-intervention, post-intervention and three-month follow-up, as well as throughout the program. DISCUSSION: This paper describes the study protocol of a single group clinical trial of a national, online, father-inclusive parenting intervention. The results from this study could be used to inform public policy about providing support to parents of children with behaviour problems, and enhancing the engagement of fathers in parenting interventions. TRIAL REGISTRATION: ACTRN12616001223426 , registered 05/09/2016.

Optimising child outcomes from parenting interventions: fathers' experiences, preferences and barriers to participation.

BACKGROUND: Early childhood interventions can have both immediate and long-term positive effects on cognitive, behavioural, health and education outcomes. Fathers are underrepresented in interventions focusing on the well-being of children. However, father participation may be critical for intervention effectiveness, especially for parenting interventions for child externalising problems. To date, there has been very little research conducted to understand the low rates of father participation and to facilitate the development of interventions to meet the needs of fathers. This study examined fathers' experiences of, and preferences for, parenting interventions as well as perceptions of barriers to participation. It also examined how these factors were associated with child externalising behaviour problems, and explored the predictors of participation in parenting interventions. METHODS: A community sample of 1001 fathers of children aged 2-16 years completed an online survey about experiences with parenting interventions, perceived barriers to participation, the importance of different factors in their decision to attend, and preferred content and delivery methods. They also completed ratings of their child's behaviour using the Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire. RESULTS: Overall, 15% of fathers had participated in a parenting intervention or treatment for child behaviour, with significantly higher rates of participation for fathers of children with high versus low levels of externalising problems. Fathers rated understanding what is involved in the program and knowing that the facilitator is trained as the two most important factors in their decision to participate. There were several barriers to participation that fathers of children with high-level externalising problems were more likely to endorse, across practical barriers and help-seeking attitudes, compared to fathers of children with low-level externalising problems. Almost two-thirds of fathers of children with high-level externalising behaviour had not participated in a parenting intervention or treatment. The only significant predictors of intervention participation were severity of child externalising behaviour problems and child age. CONCLUSIONS: The findings have important implications for services seeking to increase father engagement and highlight a number of strategies to enhance the promotion and delivery of parenting interventions to fathers. These strategies include more public health messaging about parenting programs and the importance of father participation.

A randomized controlled trial of a brief versus standard group parenting program for toddler aggression.

Physical aggression (PA) in the toddler years is common and developmentally normal, however, longitudinal research shows that frequent PA is highly stable and associated with long-term negative outcomes. Significant research has demonstrated the efficacy of parenting interventions for reducing externalizing behavior in children yet their typical length may overburden families, leading to low participation rates and high attrition rates. To increase the reach of parenting interventions and impact on the prevalence of externalizing behavior problems, brief interventions are needed. This RCT compared a standard (8 session) group Triple P to a brief (3 session) discussion group and a waitlist control for reducing toddler PA, dysfunctional parenting and related aspects of parent functioning. Sixty-nine self-referred families of toddlers with PA were randomized to the respective conditions. At post-assessment, families in the standard intervention had significantly lower levels of observed child aversive behavior, mother reports of PA and dysfunctional parenting, and higher levels of mother- and partner-rated behavioral self-efficacy than the waitlist control. Families in the standard intervention also had significantly lower levels mother-rated dysfunctional parenting than the brief intervention, and the brief intervention had significantly lower levels of mother-rated dysfunctional parenting than waitlist. There were no significant group differences at post-assessment for measures of parental negative affect or satisfaction with the partner relationship. By 6 month follow-up, families in the brief and standard intervention did not differ significantly on any measure. The implications of the findings to delivery of brief parenting interventions are discussed. Aggr. Behav. 43:291-303, 2017. © 2016 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

Why am I depressed?: An investigation of whether patients' beliefs about depression concur with their diagnostic subtype.

We investigated whether patients' beliefs about the causes of their depression concurred with their diagnostic subtype. Depressed patients (N = 196) attending a tertiary referral clinic completed a questionnaire regarding putative biological and nonbiological causes of their depression. Subtyping diagnoses of melancholic or nonmelancholic depression were made. Patients with nonmelancholic depression were more likely to attribute nonbiological factors as the cause of their depression than those with melancholic depression, whereas patients with melancholic depression were no more likely to attribute biological factors as the cause of their depression. Patients can distinguish differing causes of depression. The implications of the findings for the current classificatory systems of depression are discussed.

Nature X nurture: genetic vulnerabilities interact with physical maltreatment to promote conduct problems.

Maltreatment places children at risk for psychiatric morbidity, especially conduct problems. However, not all maltreated children develop conduct problems. We tested whether the effect of physical maltreatment on risk for conduct problems was strongest among those who were at high genetic risk for these problems using data from the E-risk Study, a representative cohort of 1,116 5-year-old British twin pairs and their families. Children's conduct problems were ascertained via parent and teacher interviews. Physical maltreatment was ascertained via parent report. Children's genetic risk for conduct problems was estimated as a function of their co-twin's conduct disorder status and the pair's zygosity. The effect of maltreatment on risk for conduct problems was strongest among those at high genetic risk. The experience of maltreatment was associated with an increase of 2% in the probability of a conduct disorder diagnosis among children at low genetic risk for conduct disorder but an increase of 24% among children at high genetic risk. Prediction of behavioral pathology can attain greater accuracy if both pathogenic environments and genetic risk are ascertained. Certain genotypes may promote resistance to trauma. Physically maltreated children whose first-degree relatives engage in antisocial behavior warrant priority for therapeutic intervention.

What effect does classroom separation have on twins' behavior, progress at school, and reading abilities?

We investigated the effects of classroom separation on twins' behavior, progress at school, and reading abilities. This investigation was part of a longitudinal study of a nationally-representative sample of twins (the E-risk Study) who were assessed at the start of school (age 5) and followed up (age 7). We examined three groups of twins: pairs who were in the same class at both ages; pairs who were in separate classes at both ages; and pairs who were in the same class at age 5, but separated by age 7. When compared to those not separated, those separated early had significantly more teacher-rated internalizing problems and those separated later showed more internalizing problems and lower reading scores. Monozygotic (MZ) twins showed more problems as a result of separation than dizygotic (DZ) twins. No group differences emerged for externalizing problems, ADHD or prosocial behaviors. The implications of the findings for parents and teachers of twins, and for school practices about separating twins, are discussed.