Improving the on-target activity of high-fidelity Cas9 editors by combining rational design and random mutagenesis.

Genomic and post-genomic editors based on CRISPR/Cas systems are widely used in basic research and applied sciences, including human gene therapy. Most genome editing tools are based on the CRISPR/Cas9 type IIA system from Streptococcus pyogenes. Unfortunately, a number of drawbacks have hindered its application in therapeutic approaches, the most serious of which is the relatively high level of off-targets. To overcome this obstacle, various high-fidelity Cas9 variants have been created. However, they show reduced on-target activity compared to wild-type Cas9 possibly due to increased sensitivity to eukaryotic chromatin. Here, we combined a rational approach with random mutagenesis to create a set of new Cas9 variants showing high specificity and increased activity in Saccharomyces cerevisiae yeast. Moreover, a novel mutation in the PAM (protospacer adjacent motif)-interacting Cas9 domain was found, which increases the on-target activity of high-fidelity Cas9 variants while retaining their high specificity. The obtained data suggest that this mutation acts by weakening the eukaryotic chromatin barrier for Cas9 and rearranging the RuvC active center. Improved Cas9 variants should further advance genome and post-genome editing technologies. KEY POINTS: • D147Y and P411T mutations increase the activity of high-fidelity Cas9 variants. • The new L1206P mutation further increases the activity of high-fidelity Cas9 variants. • The L1206P mutation weakens the chromatin barrier for Cas9 editors.

CRISPR/Cas9-Mediated Genome Engineering Reveals the Contribution of the 26S Proteasome to the Extremophilic Nature of the Yeast Debaryomyces hansenii.

The marine yeast Debaryomyces hansenii is of high importance in the food, chemical, and medical industries. D. hansenii is also a popular model for studying molecular mechanisms of halo- and osmotolerance. The absence of genome editing technologies hampers D. hansenii research and limits its biotechnological application. We developed novel and efficient single- and dual-guide CRISPR systems for markerless genome editing of D. hansenii. The single-guide system allows high-efficiency (up to 95%) mutation of genes or regulatory elements. The dual-guide system is applicable for efficient deletion of genomic loci. We used these tools to study transcriptional regulation of the 26S proteasome, an ATP-dependent protease complex whose proper function is vital for all cells and organisms. We developed a genetic approach to control the activity of the 26S proteasome by deregulation of its essential subunits. The mutant strains were sensitive to geno- and proteotoxic stresses as well as high salinity and osmolarity, suggesting a contribution of the proteasome to the extremophilic properties of D. hansenii. The developed CRISPR systems allow efficient D. hansenii genome engineering, providing a genetic way to control proteasome activity, and should advance applications of this yeast.

Yeast Rpn4 Links the Proteasome and DNA Repair via RAD52 Regulation.

Environmental and intracellular factors often damage DNA, but multiple DNA repair pathways maintain genome integrity. In yeast, the 26S proteasome and its transcriptional regulator and substrate Rpn4 are involved in DNA damage resistance. Paradoxically, while proteasome dysfunction may induce hyper-resistance to DNA-damaging agents, Rpn4 malfunction sensitizes yeasts to these agents. Previously, we proposed that proteasome inhibition causes Rpn4 stabilization followed by the upregulation of Rpn4-dependent DNA repair genes and pathways. Here, we aimed to elucidate the key Rpn4 targets responsible for DNA damage hyper-resistance in proteasome mutants. We impaired the Rpn4-mediated regulation of candidate genes using the CRISPR/Cas9 system and tested the sensitivity of mutant strains to 4-NQO, MMS and zeocin. We found that the separate or simultaneous deregulation of 19S or 20S proteasome subcomplexes induced MAG1, DDI1, RAD23 and RAD52 in an Rpn4-dependent manner. Deregulation of RAD23, DDI1 and RAD52 sensitized yeast to DNA damage. Genetic, epigenetic or dihydrocoumarin-mediated RAD52 repression restored the sensitivity of the proteasome mutants to DNA damage. Our results suggest that the Rpn4-mediated overexpression of DNA repair genes, especially RAD52, defines the DNA damage hyper-resistant phenotype of proteasome mutants. The developed yeast model is useful for characterizing drugs that reverse the DNA damage hyper-resistance phenotypes of cancers.

LINC00973 Induces Proliferation Arrest of Drug-Treated Cancer Cells by Preventing p21 Degradation.

Overcoming drug resistance of cancer cells is the major challenge in molecular oncology. Here, we demonstrate that long non-coding RNA LINC00973 is up-regulated in normal and cancer cells of different origins upon treatment with different chemotherapeutics. Bioinformatics analysis shows that this is a consequence of DNA damage response pathway activation or mitotic arrest. Knockdown of LINC0973 decreases p21 levels, activates cellular proliferation of cancer cells, and suppresses apoptosis of drug-treated cells. We have found that LINC00973 strongly increases p21 protein content, possibly by blocking its degradation. Besides, we have found that ectopic over-expression of LINC00973 inhibits formation of the pro-survival p53-Ser15-P isoform, which preserves chromosome integrity. These results might open a new approach to the development of more efficient anti-cancer drugs.

Deregulation of the 19S proteasome complex increases yeast resistance to 4-NQO and oxidative stress via upregulation of Rpn4- and proteasome-dependent stress responsive genes.

The 26S proteasome participates in cell stress responses via its ability to degrade regulatory and damaged proteins. In yeast, mutations in the subunits of the 19S proteasome regulatory subcomplex cause hyper-resistance to 4-nitroquinoline-1-oxide (4-NQO), a chemical mutagen and carcinogen. These data suggest a negative role for the 19S proteasome complex in the cellular response to 4-NQO, although the underlying mechanism is not clear. We proposed that decreased 19S subcomplex activity leads to the stabilisation of Rpn4p, a transcription factor and proteasome substrate. In turn, stabilised Rpn4p may upregulate stress-responsive genes that participate in the response to 4-NQO-induced stress. To test our hypothesis, we impaired the expression of the RPT5 gene, which encodes the ATPase subunit of the 19S subcomplex, by mutating the Rpn4p binding site in its promoter. The mutant strain accumulates polyubiquitinated proteins-a hallmark of compromised proteasome function-and shows hyper-resistance to 4-NQO. We found several groups of genes that conferred resistance to 4-NQO-induced stress and were overexpressed due to the Rpn4p stabilisation and impaired 19S subcomplex function. The upregulated genes are involved in the oxidative and proteotoxic stress response pathways, multidrug resistance and biosynthesis of cysteine and methionine. Consistently, the mutant strain was hyper-resistant to oxidative stress. Our data imply that the ubiquitin-proteasome system may regulate the cellular response to 4-NQO at the transcriptional level.

Functional analysis of Debaryomyces hansenii Rpn4 on a genetic background of Saccharomyces cerevisiae.

The transcription factor ScRpn4 coordinates the expression of Saccharomyces cerevisiae proteasomal genes. ScRpn4 orthologues are found in a number of other Saccharomycetes yeasts. Their functions, however, have not yet been characterised experimentally in vivo . We expressed the Debaryomyces hansenii DEHA2D12848 gene encoding an ScRpn4 orthologue (DhRpn4), in an S. cerevisiae strain lacking RPN4 . We showed that DhRpn4 activates transcription of proteasomal genes using ScRpn4 binding site and provides resistance to various stresses. The 43-238 aa segment of DhRpn4 contains an unique portable transactivation domain. Similar to the ScRpn4 N-terminus, this domain lacks a compact structure Moreover, upon overexpression in D. hansenii , DhRpn4 upregulates protesomal genes. Thus, we show that DhRpn4 is the activator for proteasomal genes.

Proteasome inhibition enhances resistance to DNA damage via upregulation of Rpn4-dependent DNA repair genes.

The 26S proteasome is an ATP-dependent multi-subunit protease complex and the major regulator of intracellular protein turnover and quality control. However, its role in the DNA damage response is controversial. We addressed this question in yeast by disrupting the transcriptional regulation of the PRE1 proteasomal gene. The mutant strain has decreased proteasome activity and is hyper-resistant to various DNA-damaging agents. We found that Rpn4-target genes MAG1, RAD23, and RAD52 are overexpressed in this strain due to Rpn4 stabilisation. These genes represent three different pathways of base excision, nucleotide excision and double strand break repair by homologous recombination (DSB-HR). Consistently, the proteasome mutant displays increased DSB-HR activity. Our data imply that the proteasome may have a negative role in DNA damage response.

Mapping of yeast Rpn4p transactivation domains.

The 26S proteasome is a multi-subunit protease complex and plays an essential role in many basic cellular processes. The abundance of the 26S proteasome is controlled by a negative feedback circuit that involves the Rpn4p transcriptional activator. To date, the functional regions of Rpn4p are largely unknown. We mapped the Rpn4p transactivation domains by deletion analysis. The distal acidic domain has stronger transactivation potential than that of the proximal acidic domain. However, the N-terminal region, and not the acidic domains of Rpn4p, is crucial for Rpn4p function. Within the N-terminus, we mapped a novel transactivation domain, which may be regulated by some modification of lysines in a proteolysis-independent manner.