Are All Substance-Involved Sexual Assaults Alike? A Comparison of Victim Alcohol Use, Drug Use, and Combined Substance Use in Sexual Assaults.

Sexual assaults involving victim substance use at the time of the assault are common, but little is known about how different types of substances used at the time of the assault impact post-assault outcomes. The current study sought to compare victim alcohol use, drug use, and combined substance use in sexual assaults among a community sample of 693 victims. It was hypothesized that victims in the combined substance use assault type would report overall worse post-assault outcomes, more contextual and interpersonal traumas, and higher assault severity. Our results partially confirmed these hypotheses, but victims in the drug-involved assault type group overall reported higher assault severity and worse post-assault outcomes. These findings are probably partially attributed to the demographic characteristics of victims in the drug-only group (e.g. Black victims) who are more likely to experience a higher severity of violence. Implications for future research and policy regarding drug decriminalization are discussed.

Social Reactions to Disclosures of Multiple-Perpetrator Sexual Assault: Do Number of Offenders Matter?

Sexual assault (SA) victimization is a prevalent issue both in the U.S. and globally. Although SA victimization is usually perpetrated by a single-perpetrator, multiple-perpetrator sexual assaults (MPSAs) also occur. Unfortunately, there is less literature concerning MPSAs, including the well-being of survivors' post-assault. One factor that has been shown to be important in the well-being of SA survivors' post-assault are the social reactions survivors receive from others following disclosure. The current study sought to compare social reactions received by MPSA survivors to the social reactions received by single-perpetrator sexual assault (SPSA) survivors in a community sample of adult female SA survivors (N = 1,863). We examined "turning against" (TA) reactions, a type of negative social reaction in which the supporter expresses more overtly distressing reactions that focus blame on the victim. We also examined unsupportive acknowledgment reactions (UA) the second type of negative reaction in which survivors receive acknowledgment that the assault occurred but are not supported. Additionally, we examined differences in positive reactions that survivors received from their support systems. One-way Analysis of Variance showed statistically significant differences in social reactions to disclosure according to number of offenders in the SA, with MPSA survivors receiving more TA and UA negative reactions than SPSA survivors. There were no differences in positive reactions by number of offenders. Multiple regression analyses also revealed that several demographics, assault characteristics, and post-assault factors (total Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) symptoms, coping, attributions of self-blame) were related to the social reactions received by MPSA survivors post-assault. Implications and recommendations for support providers are discussed.

Conducting Virtual Interviews With Sexual Assault Survivors and Their Informal Supports During COVID-19 and Beyond.

The current paper describes the author's experience conducting virtual interviews with sexual assault survivors and their informal supports (e.g., family, friend, partner) during the COVID-19 pandemic, drawing on past and present interviewing experiences with this population, and the recent literature on best practices for virtual interviewing and survivor/trauma-informed research methods. The experience of pivoting from past projects using face-to-face interview methods to doing virtual interviews with this population is presented and critically analyzed. Potential advantages and drawbacks of various methods and adaptations for doing virtual interviews in a dyadic sample of survivors and their informal supports are described to facilitate future research using virtual methods with sexual assault survivors and their informal supporters. Issues related to access (e.g., e.g., age, gender, race, ability, poverty) to interview participation are also noted as in need of more consideration. Finally, the impact on interviewers of doing this work in virtual versus face-to-face contexts is discussed.

Aspects of Selective Sexual Assault Disclosure: Qualitative Interviews With Survivors and Their Informal Supports.

Two-thirds of survivors typically disclose their experience to informal supports (e.g., friends, family, partners) at some point following sexual assault, but little in-depth research has addressed specific aspects of disclosure. In the current study, a diverse sample of 45 sexual assault survivors and their informal support providers (SP; e.g., family, friends, romantic partners) were interviewed separately about experiences of disclosure, social reactions, and help-seeking following the assault. Narrative data on the overarching thematic category of selective disclosure were analyzed using thematic analysis methods. Several subthemes emerged specific to (a) the circumstances of disclosure (prompted or coerced), (b) withholding details (framing disclosures to avoid rape myths and blame, strategic use of language, protecting others by not disclosing or limiting details), and (c) sharing details (selecting who was told, selecting trusted others for disclosure, selective details told to specific people, sharing with strangers easier). Implications are drawn for future research on aspects of selective disclosure of sexual assault and clinical practice implications for supporting survivors and their informal support networks.

Prevalence of trauma exposure and PTSD symptoms among the Icelandic population: gender and regional differences.

AIM: The primary aim of this cross-sectional study was to provide descriptive data about the lifetime prevalence of trauma exposure with a particular focus on sexual violence and natural disasters and to assess the prevalence of symptoms of post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) in the Icelandic population. In addition, the aim was to investigate whether PTSD symptoms, trauma types and prevalence differed by gender and geographical location. METHOD: A representative sample of the population between the ages of 18 and 80 years was randomly selected from the Icelandic National Registrar. The study included a total of 1766 participants consisting of 930 (52.7%) women and 836 (47.3%) men, with an overall mean age of 49.9 years (standard deviation 16.1). Participants were contacted by phone and asked questions from the Lifetime Events Checklist (LEC-5) to assess lifetime exposure to traumatic events. Individuals who had experienced traumatic events completed the PTSD Checklist for DSM-5 (PCL-5) to assess PTSD symptoms. RESULTS: Exposure to trauma is common among the Icelandic population, with 84.3% of the participants experiencing at least one kind of trauma. Of those exposed to trauma, 10.5% fulfilled criteria indicating a higher risk of PTSD. The prevalence of sexual violence and other unwanted sexual experiences was relatively high (16.2% and 24.4%, respectively) compared with other national studies. Women were almost four times more likely than men to have been exposed to sexual violence (24.9% vs 6.4%), and were more likely to have been exposed to other unwanted sexual experience (35.1% vs 12.4%, respectively). Exposure to natural disasters is frequent but with great geographical variation. CONCLUSIONS: This study highlights the high prevalence of trauma in Iceland, revealing significant gender disparities in sexual violence and geographical variations in natural disaster exposure.

The Process of Online Disclosures of Interpersonal Victimization: A Systematic Review.

Theory and research on disclosure of interpersonal victimization, including intimate partner violence, sexual assault, and child abuse, has produced rich scholarship promoting a greater understanding of the challenges and implications of disclosure for survivors. However, in the last decade, social media platforms have opened new online disclosure opportunities that diverge from and overlap with offline disclosure. This highlights the need for adaptation and elaboration of theorizing in this growing area of study. Thus, the study aimed to systematically review the studies published in scientific literature. The following databases were accessed Criminal Justice Abstracts, Medline PsychInfo, Social Work Abstracts, Sociological Abstracts, Web of Science database, and Google Scholar. Twenty-seven studies met the inclusion criteria of peer-reviewed status and focused on the disclosure process. A thematic analysis revealed that online disclosure of interpersonal victimization is a multi-phase (decision-making and disclosure aftermath) and multifactorial (individual, interpersonal, social, and technological) experience for survivors. Specifically, survivors' motivation was related to therapeutic goals, social support, and a desire to advocate for social change. Survivors faced numerous facilitators (e.g., inspiration from other online disclosures) and barriers (e.g., fear of triggering other survivors) to disclosure. The impact of online disclosure was divided into benefits (e.g., empowerment) and risks (e.g., undermining survivors' security). The conceptual and empirical limitations of the current research are discussed, including a need for quantitative methods with larger samples and longitudinal designs to better understand how survivors can best benefit from processes of online disclosure, while avoiding harm or re-traumatization.

College students' perceptions of alcohol's role in disclosures of sexual assault and intimate partner violence.

Objective: Much is known about how alcohol increases the risk of sexual assault or intimate partner violence victimization during college. This research qualitatively explores perceptions about how alcohol influences disclosures about these events to informal supports. Participants: Participants included college students who received a disclosure wherein they or the survivor were drinking during the disclosure (n = 81). Methods: Responses were coded with regard to who was drinking and whether the effect of drinking during the disclosure was perceived as positive, negative, mixed, or neutral/none. Results: Participants perceived alcohol to have both positive (e.g., increasing the likelihood of discussing difficult topics) and negative (e.g., cognitive impairment increased negative emotions) effects on disclosures. Conclusion: Prevention and intervention efforts should identify targeted strategies (e.g., remembering one or two easy and helpful phrases; revisiting the topic again while sober) to help survivors and disclosure recipients have constructive conversations in the presence of alcohol.

Facilitators of Sexual Assault Disclosure: A Dyadic Study of Female Survivors and Their Informal Supports.

Two-thirds of survivors typically disclose their experience to others at some point following sexual assault, but little in-depth research has addressed factors facilitating disclosure. In the current study, a diverse sample of 45 female sexual assault survivors (75% racial/ethnic minorities) and their 45 informal support providers (SP; e.g., family, friends, romantic partners) were interviewed separately about experiences of disclosure, social reactions, and help-seeking following assault. Disclosure facilitation was expressed by 40 survivors and 31 SPs, of which 28 were matched S/SP dyadic pairs. Narrative data on the overarching thematic category of sexual assault disclosure facilitation was analyzed using descriptive thematic analysis methods. Several themes emerged from the analysis of quotes specific to the facilitation of disclosure, including: individual (e.g., survivor psychological, behavioral, and disclosure recipient factors), interpersonal (e.g., SP-solicited disclosures, helping others, mutual disclosures), and societal (e.g., lack of barriers, formal supports, media). Implications are drawn for future research on facilitators of sexual assault disclosure. Clinical practice implications are provided for professionals supporting survivors and their informal support networks.

Correlates of Social Reactions to Victims' Disclosures of Sexual Assault and Intimate Partner Violence: A Systematic Review.

Sexual assault and intimate partner violence (IPV) are common experiences in women, but few studies have examined correlates of social reactions experienced by victims telling others about assault. This systematic review identified 30 studies through searches of research databases on correlates of social reactions to disclosure of sexual assault or IPV in samples of adult victims or disclosure recipients. Studies showed evidence of greater negative social reactions for Black and Hispanic victims, less educated, and bisexual victims. More extensive trauma histories in victims were related to receipt of greater negative social reactions, whereas assault characteristics (e.g., victim-offender relationship, alcohol use, perpetrator violence during assault) were sometimes associated with negative reactions. In terms of postassault factors, more psychological symptoms, self-blame, avoidance coping, less perceived control, and less posttraumatic growth were related to more negative social reactions. Disclosure characteristics, telling informal sources, and telling more sources were related to more positive reactions, whereas telling both formal and informal sources was related to negative reactions. Demographic, attitudinal, and relational factors were related to disclosure recipients' intended social reactions. Future research needs to examine how various factors relate to social reactions in the context of theory, and clinical treatment and interventions should use this information to identify and intervene with victims to reduce negative social reactions and their psychological impacts and to increase positive social reactions particularly from informal support sources.

Disclosure of Sexual Assault Among Sexual and Gender Minorities: A Systematic Literature Review.

Sexual assault is common in sexual and gender minority (SGM) individuals, but few studies have examined SGM victims' disclosure experiences. This systematic review identified 13 studies through searches of research databases on SGM populations with sexual victimization. These studies showed wide variation in disclosure rates, various barriers to disclosure, and psychological impacts of social reactions to disclosure on SGM individuals. Bisexual women were more likely to disclose to formal (e.g., police, healthcare providers) and informal (e.g., friends, family members) sources than other women, and SGM victims disclose to mental health professionals at particularly high rates. Sexual and gender minority victims also reported numerous barriers to disclosure, including those unique to SGM individuals (e.g., fear of being outed). Impacts of negative social reactions appear to be more negative on psychological symptoms of SGM victims, whereas positive reactions are helpful to recovery. Future research is needed taking an intersectional perspective to studying disclosure and social reactions to SGM individuals from both college and community samples, by examining both sexual minority and racial/ethnic identities in the context of intersectional minority stress theory. Studies are needed of both correlates and consequences of disclosures to both informal and formal support sources to better understand SGM individuals' reasons for telling and not telling various support sources and the impacts of their disclosure experiences on their recovery. Such data is also needed to inform interventions seeking to identify and intervene with support network members and professionals to reduce negative social reactions and their psychosocial impacts and to increase positive social reactions and general social support from informal support sources.

Longitudinal patterns of posttraumatic stress disorder symptoms among sexual assault survivors: A latent transition analysis.

OBJECTIVE: The aim of this study was to identify latent classes of posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) symptoms in a community sample of sexual assault survivors whose assaults occurred varying lengths of time in the past and to explore patterns of transition between those latent classes over time. METHOD: Latent class analysis was used to identify naturally occurring subgroups of PTSD symptoms in a sample of sexual assault survivors who completed two mailed surveys 1 year apart (N = 1,271). Latent transition analysis was then used to examine individuals' probabilities of transitioning into each latent class at Time 2 based on their latent class membership at Time 1. RESULTS: A four-class model emerged as the best fitting model at both Time 1 and Time 2. Classes demonstrated overall severity and symptom cluster severity differences. Transition into a lower severity class was more common than transition into a higher severity class, though escalation was demonstrated by 6-20% of participants in each latent class. CONCLUSIONS: The substantial heterogeneity in sexual assault survivors' PTSD symptoms highlights the variety of ways that posttraumatic stress may be experienced years after a sexual assault. Future research should explore factors that affect long-term symptoms, including cumulative lifetime trauma and social support. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2022 APA, all rights reserved).

Exploring Correlates of Social Reactions to Disclosure Among Latina Sexual Assault Survivors.

Social reactions to sexual assault (SA) disclosure are well-documented in the literature, but less is known about disclosure and reactions received by Latina survivors. The current study analyzed correlates of positive and negative social reactions to sexual assault disclosure in a community sample of Latina survivors (n = 239). Compared to White survivors, Latina survivors were more likely to report turning against and acknowledgement without support reactions. Among Latina survivors, contrary to hypotheses, both "stereotypical" (e.g. more violent assaults) and "non-stereotypical" (e.g. pre-assault substance use) assault characteristics were associated with acknowledgement without support negative social reactions. Furthermore, total number of sources Latina survivors disclosed to were associated with turning against social reactions. Implications for future research on disclosure/social reactions and Latina survivors are discussed.

What relates to length of stay in a sober living home among women with histories of victimization and addiction? A longitudinal analysis.

Despite preliminary research suggesting that length of stay in sober living homes (SLHs) is related to sustained sobriety, little research has examined factors that relate to length of stay in SLHs. The purpose of the proposed exploratory study was to prospectively examine baseline characteristics of women with histories of addiction and victimization as correlates of length of stay in a trauma-informed, gender-responsive SLH. Participants (N = 45) were surveyed three times over a 1-year period. Women were invited to participate within a week of their arrival to the SLH. Nearly two-thirds (62.2%, n = 28) of women stayed under 3 months, and 37.8% (n = 17) of women stayed over 3 months. Whereas older age and greater financial worries were associated with staying over 3 months at the SLH, other variables (e.g., demographics, mental health, recent victimization, recent substance use) were unrelated. Findings indicate that efforts may be needed to ensure that younger women as well as women with less financial worries, who may be less likely to stay for longer periods of times at SLHs, have adequate support for sobriety.

The Feasibility of a Novel Recruitment Protocol for Collecting Survivor Data via Disclosure Recipient Referrals.

The current arricle describes a novel recruitment protocol for collecting data from sexual assault and intimate partner violence survivors referred to research studies by individuals to whom they had previously disclosed. Challenges in both recruiting participants and interpreting data are described. Only 35.8% of cases had usable data for both survivors and disclosure recipients, suggesting that this referral method had limited success in recruiting matched pairs. Suggestions for modifications to improve the protocol for future research are offered. Potential advantages and drawbacks of various methods for recruiting dyads are described in order to facilitate future research on survivors' disclosure processes, social reactions, and the influence of social reactions on survivor recovery.

Disclosure Recipients' Perceptions Related to Helping Victims of Dating and Sexual Violence.

To date, research on social reactions to dating and sexual violence (DSV) disclosure has largely neglected the perspective of disclosure recipients. Moreover, few studies have explored disclosure recipients' perceptions of the victim and perceptions of their own effectiveness in helping as well as the correlates of these perceptions. The purpose of this study was to address these gaps in the literature. Participants were 783 college students (73.0% female) who reported receiving a DSV disclosure in the past 6 months. Participants who provided more negative social reactions to victim disclosures were less likely to empathize with the victim and more likely to feel victim blame/burdensomeness and confusion/ineffectiveness in their responses. Conversely, those providing more positive social reactions were more likely to empathize with the victim and were less likely to report victim blame/burdensomeness and confusion/ineffectiveness. Further, recipients with a DSV victimization history were more likely to report empathy for the victim. Being a man and having higher post-traumatic stress symptoms were associated with greater victim blame/burdensomeness, while the victim approaching the recipient to disclose and DSV experiences that occurred long ago were associated with lower victim blame/burdensomeness. Finally, depressive symptoms, receiving disclosures from a stranger/casual friend, and less frequent discussion about the incident were significantly associated with increased confusion/ineffectiveness. These findings suggest that perceptions of the victim and helping effectiveness, and factors associated with them, may be promising targets of programs seeking to reduce negative and increase positive social reactions to DSV disclosures.

Differences in Women's Substance-Related Sexual Assaults: Force, Impairment, and Combined Assault Types.

This study furthers previous research on sexual assaults (SAs) involving substances and/or force by examining effects of perpetrator behaviors of alcohol and/or drug impairment level (none, impaired, incapacitated) and/or force during SA in relationship to various assault and recovery outcomes. A diverse sample of 632 women from a large Midwestern city participated in a study on women's experiences with SA. Of this sample of substance-involved SAs, 37.3% (n = 236) reported a forcible-only unimpaired assault, 50.6% (n = 320) reported a combined impairment/incapacitation and force assault, and 12% (n = 76) reported an impaired/incapacitated-only assault. Multivariate analyses of covariance (MANCOVAs) and chi-square analyses compared assault types as defined by combined alcohol and/or drug impairment level and/or force to determine how these assaults differed in demographics, other assault characteristics, and post-assault experiences. Assault types differed on several demographic, assault, and post-assault factors with most differences showing that the combined assault type was related to worse outcomes than forcible-type assaults, including greater reexperiencing, avoidance, and numbing post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) symptoms. Implications for clinical intervention include recognizing that assaults involving substance use and force are traumatic and warrant individualized treatment.

Predictors of uptake and retention in an intervention to improve social reactions to disclosures of sexual assault and partner abuse.

Objective Examine uptake (e.g., initial session participation) and retention (e.g., booster session participation) in an intervention about responding to sexual assault and partner abuse disclosures. Participants: Participants were 836 students (primarily White; upper-middle class) at a medium-sized university. Method: Participants completed baseline surveys, were invited to a two-session intervention, and responded to a follow-up survey. Results: Initial session attendance was 36.2% (n = 303); of those, 83.1% (n = 252) attended the booster. Female, sexual minority students, and students with fewer prior negative reactions, and higher initial session satisfaction were more likely to attend than other students. Participants' reported reasons for not attending included scheduling problems and topic discomfort. Participants reported that remote attendance and higher cash incentives would have made attendance more likely. Conclusion: Findings indicate the draw of cash incentives, a need to reach high-risk students and integrate into existing organizations, and the potential for individualized prevention.

A Mixed-Method Process Evaluation of an Intervention to Improve Social Reactions to Disclosures of Sexual Assault and Partner Abuse.

Because of the high rates and deleterious consequences of sexual assault (SA) and partner abuse (PA) on college campuses, there is a proliferation of programming to both prevent and respond to these issues. Most research to date, however, presents outcome evaluation data on these programs and neglects to present process evaluation data which are critical for program refinement and dissemination. The purpose of this study was to present process evaluation data (i.e., acceptability and feasibility) specific to a program that endeavored to increase positive and decrease negative social reactions from disclosure recipients to individuals disclosing SA and PA. Participants were 303 students who completed the program and participated in postintervention surveys and a subset of students (n = 18) who completed exit interviews. Results documented that the program was both feasible and acceptable, as evidenced by high satisfaction ratings. Important suggestions were also provided for how to improve the program, such as reducing repetition and making scenarios more realistic. Finally, participants who reported higher program engagement and more program usage generally reported more intentions to provide positive social reactions, less intentions to provide negative social reactions, and less actual negative social reactions. This information is useful not only for adapting the current program discussed herein but also for program developers and preventionists wishing to create similar programming to effectively prevent and improve response to SA and PA.

A Pilot Evaluation of an Intervention to Improve Social Reactions to Sexual and Partner Violence Disclosures.

The purpose of this study was to evaluate an intervention (Supporting Survivors and Self [SSS]) created to increase positive social reactions and decrease negative social reactions to sexual assault and partner violence disclosures among informal support disclosure recipients. Participants were 1,268 college students from a medium-sized New England university who completed an online baseline survey and were assigned to either the treatment or control condition. The SSS intervention trained potential informal supports on what to say and not to say to disclosure recipients. Six months after the SSS intervention, participants in both conditions completed the follow-up survey online. Although intentions to provide positive social reactions significantly increased among participants in the treatment group compared with the control group and there were marginally significant effects in the anticipated directions for alcohol-specific intended social reactions, no overall difference was observed across conditions in actual social reactions provided. Moderation analyses suggested that, in general, the SSS intervention was more effective on various outcomes for students who were younger, male, non-White, sexual minorities, and/or non-victims. Moderation analyses also suggested that the intervention varied in efficacy depending on the circumstances of the disclosure. Despite the mixed outcomes of the SSS intervention, these data suggest that the SSS intervention was effective in improving social reactions for some students and under some circumstances. Future research is needed to further refine the SSS intervention to bolster its effectiveness in reducing negative social reactions and increasing positive social reactions for all students.