The Role of Virtual Surgical Planning in Surgery for Complex Craniosynostosis.

Background: Virtual surgical planning (VSP) decreases reliance on intraoperative subjective assessment of aesthetic and functional outcomes in craniofacial surgery. Here, we describe our experience of using VSP for complex craniosynostosis surgery to inform preoperative decision making and optimize postoperative outcomes. Methods: Chart review was performed for children treated with craniosynostosis at our institution from 2015 to 2021. Eight VSP maneuvers were defined and assigned to each patient when applicable: (1) complex cranioplasty: combined autologous and synthetic; (2) autologous cranioplasty; (3) synthetic cranioplasty; (4) vector analysis and distractor placement; (5) complex osteotomies; (6) multilayered intraoperative plans; (7) volume analysis; and (8) communication with parents. Outcomes between VSP and non-VSP cohorts were compared. Results: Of 166 total cases, 32 were considered complex, defined by multisutural craniosynostosis, syndromic craniosynostosis, or revision status. Of these complex cases, 20 underwent VSP and 12 did not. There was no difference in mean operative time between the VSP and non-VSP groups (541 versus 532 min, P = 0.82) or in unexpected return to operating room (10.5% versus 8.3%, P = 0.84). VSP was most often used to communicate the surgical plan with parents (90%) and plan complex osteotomies (85%). Conclusions: In this cohort, VSP was most often used to communicate the surgical plan with families and plan complex osteotomies. Our results indicate that VSP may improve intraoperative efficiency and safety for complex craniosynostosis surgery. This tool can be considered a useful adjunct to plan and guide intraoperative decisions in complex cases, reducing variability and guiding parental expectations.

Management of Total Frontal Bone Loss After Surgery for Craniosynostosis: The Modified Visor Bone Flap With Brain Cage.

Complications after craniosynostosis surgery occur in 11% to 36% of cases and may be precipitated by poor soft tissue coverage and concomitant exposure of non-sterile regions; sequelae may result in infection, osteomyelitis, and bone loss requiring complex reconstruction. In the pediatric population, autologous cranioplasty remains the gold standard due to growth potential and a more favorable complication profile than synthetic cranioplasty. Virtual surgery planning (VSP) and computer-assisted design (CAD)/computer-assisted manufacturing (CAM) technology can be utilized to create innovative, patient-specific autologous solutions, similar to the approach with synthetic cranioplasty. A novel surgical approach using VSP was used for an 18-month-old female with near total bifrontal bone loss. Surface area measurements were used to determine the amount of bone available to replace the infected frontal bone. VSP was utilized to determine the most efficient construct configuration possible to achieve maximal coverage via calculation of cranial bone surface area measurements. Surgical reconstruction of the defect was planned as a Modified Visor Bone Flap with Posterior Brain Cage. A construct was fashioned from available cranial bone struts to obtain widespread coverage. 3D Recon images from before and after surgery demonstrate almost complete re-ossification of the cranial vault with significant resulting clinical improvement. Reconstruction of total frontal bone loss is possible by utilizing this technique. VSP can improve the safety and efficiency of complex autologous cranial bone reconstructions. We propose a treatment algorithm to address the problem of near total frontal bone loss in young children for whom alloplastic implants are not suitable.

"Healthcare Disparities in the Care of Children with Craniosynostosis in the United States: A Systematic Review".

BACKGROUND: Healthcare inequity is a pressing concern in pediatric populations with craniofacial conditions. Little is known about the barriers to care affecting children with craniosynostosis. This systematic review investigates disparities impacting care for children with craniosynostosis in the U.S. METHODS: A comprehensive literature search was performed in the following databases from inception to December 2022: Ovid MEDLINE, Ovid EMBASE, and The Cochrane Library. Studies were screened for eligibility by two authors. All original articles that focused on disparities in access, treatment, or outcomes of craniosynostosis surgery were included. Studies describing disparities in other countries, those not written English, and review articles were excluded (Figure 1). RESULTS: An initial database search revealed 607 citations of which 21 met inclusion criteria (Figure 1). All included studies were retrospective reviews of databases or cohorts of patients. The results of our study demonstrate that barriers to access in treatment for craniosynostosis disproportionally affect minority children, children of non-English speaking parents and those of lower socioeconomic status or with Medicaid. Black and Hispanic children, non-English speaking patients, and children without insurance or with Medicaid were more likely to present later for evaluation, ultimately undergoing surgery at an older age. These patients were also more likely to experience complications and require blood transfusions compared to their more privileged, white peers. CONCLUSIONS: There is a discrepancy in treatment received by minority patients, patients with Medicaid, and those who are non-English speaking. Further research is needed to describe the specific barriers that prevent equitable care for these patients.

Using Clinical Measurements to Predict Breast Skin Necrosis: A Quantitative Analysis.

BACKGROUND: Breast skin necrosis can lead to poor healing, reoperation, and unaesthetic reconstructive outcomes after mastectomy. Furthermore, the prolonged recovery can delay adjuvant oncologic regimens. This study aims to explore the role of breast surface area as a risk factor for mastectomy skin flap necrosis and to identify predictive clinical measurements. METHODS: The authors retrospectively identified patients who underwent immediate breast reconstruction (N = 926 breasts) by 2 surgeons at a single institution between 2011 and 2021. Preoperative breast measurements such as nipple-notch (NN) distance, nipple-inframammary fold (NF) distance, chest width (CW), breast circumference (BC), and breast height (BH) were used to estimate breast surface area. Univariate analysis and receiver operating characteristic curves were used to determine predictive measurements and optimal cutoff values. RESULTS: When approximated using either a cone without base or a half ellipsoid, larger surface area was a significant risk factor for mastectomy skin flap necrosis (P = 0.027 and P = 0.022, respectively). Larger NN, NF, CW, BC, and BH measurements were significant predictors of necrosis (P < 0.05). Surface area (cone without base) greater than 212 cm2, surface area (half ellipsoid) greater than 308 cm2, NN distance greater than 27 cm, NF greater than 8.5 cm, CW greater than 15 cm, BC greater than 29 cm, and BH greater than 10.5 cm are all values shown to increase the incidence of necrosis. CONCLUSIONS: Larger breast surface area is an independent risk factor for breast skin necrosis. Preoperative breast measurements can be a useful adjunct for predicting necrosis in postmastectomy patients.

A Comparative Analysis of Risk Factors for Breast Skin Necrosis following Autologous versus Device-Based Breast Reconstruction.

BACKGROUND: Mastectomy skin flap necrosis often necessitates prolonged wound care, surgical re-excision, and it increases the risk for infection. This study aims to compare rates of skin flap necrosis between autologous and device-based reconstructions and identify risk factors. METHODS: The authors retrospectively identified patients who underwent immediate breast reconstruction using either the deep inferior epigastric perforator (DIEP) flap (n = 373 breasts, 41%) or tissue expanders (n = 529 breasts, 59%) by two surgeons at a single institution between 2011 and 2021. The rate of skin flap necrosis between autologous and device-based reconstructions was compared and multivariate regression analysis was performed to identify risk factors. RESULTS: There was no significant difference in rates of skin flap necrosis between the two cohorts (26.8 vs. 15.5%, p = 0.052). Across all patients, hypertension and body mass index >30 were significant predictors of necrosis (p = 0.024 and p <0.001, respectively). Within our DIEP cohort, mastectomy specimen weight was a significant risk factor for necrosis (p = 0.001). The DIEP flap weight itself did not confer a higher risk for necrosis (p = 0.8). CONCLUSION: Immediate autologous reconstruction does not place patients at higher risk of skin necrosis. Hypertension and obesity (body mass index >30) were independent risk factors for necrosis in all patients. Mastectomy specimen weight was a significant predictor of necrosis in DIEP flap patients while the DIEP flap weight itself did not increase the risk for necrosis.

Twenty-Hour-Hour Peri-Operative Antibiotic Prophylaxis in Tissue Expander Reconstruction: Our Ten-Year Institutional Experience.

Background: Infection is a common complication after tissue expander placement. Previously, we have demonstrated that a single dose of peri-operative antibiotic agents is sufficient to achieve an adequately low infection rate for implant exchange procedures. In this follow-up study, we evaluate the efficacy of a similar course of antibiotic prophylaxis regimen for tissue expander placement procedures. Patients and Methods: This is a retrospective study of patients who underwent mastectomy and immediate tissue expander-based reconstruction from July 2011 to April 2021. The primary outcome was breast infection. Student t-test and χ2 tests were used to compare cohorts and complication rates. Multivariable regression analysis was used to identify risk factors for infection. Results: In a 10-year-period, 307 patients (529 breasts) underwent immediate tissue expander reconstruction. Infection occurred in 80 breasts (15.1%). There was no difference in infection rates across pre-pectoral, dual plane, or total submuscular approaches (p = 0.705). Once infection occurred, patients in the dual-plane cohort were more likely to be admitted for intravenous antibiotic treatment (p = 0.007). On multivariable regression analysis, mastectomy skin flap necrosis (p = 0.002), post-operative radiation therapy (p = 0.007), and active smoking (p = 0.007) were significant risk factors for subsequent infection. Conclusions: A short course of peri-operative antibiotic prophylaxis is sufficient for an adequately low infection rate. Mastectomy skin flap necrosis, post-operative radiation therapy, and active smoking placed patients at higher risk for infection. Our results advocate for the conservative use of antibiotic agents while achieving an adequate low infection rate.

Efficacy of a Single Dose of Peri-Operative Antibiotics in Breast Implant Surgery and Risk Factors for Infection in Post-Mastectomy Patients Undergoing Placement of Permanent Breast Implants.

Background: Breast implant placement is a common operation performed by plastic surgeons, with more than 78,664 implant-based breast reconstructions carried out in the United States in 2016. Infection is a major concern for the reconstructive surgeon, with rates estimated at 2%-4% for implant exchanges. Use of peri-operative antibiotics is variable and provider dependent and is not without risk. Methods: Charts for all women undergoing mastectomy and immediate reconstruction at our institution from July 1, 2011-January 1, 2020 by a single plastic surgeon were reviewed. Patient characteristics, operative technique, and history of radiation, chemotherapy, hormonal treatment, and antibiotic protocols were collected for each patient. The data were analyzed using χ2 and Student t-tests. Results: Chart review was performed for 234 consecutive patients undergoing exchange of breast implants. Patients received only a single dose of peri-operative antibiotics before the first incision without post-operative antibiotics. In these patients, a total of 407 implant exchanges occurred. Post-operative cellulitis was found in 13 instances in 12 patients (infection rate of 3.1%) and was treated successfully with oral antibiotics in 11 of 13 cases. Two patients required operative washout (0.04%). Most of the infections (69%) were found on the side of the cancer. Patients experiencing post-operative infections were more likely to have had adjuvant chemotherapy (p = 0.007) than patients without infection. There was no significant difference between the two groups with regard to neo-adjuvant chemotherapy, radiation to the affected breast, or hormonal therapy or in terms of age, Body Mass Index, or the presence of diabetes mellitus. Intra-operative povidone-iodine (Betadine) swabbing and antibiotic selection did not have an impact on infection risk. Conclusions: A single dose of antibiotics results in sufficiently low rates of infection in patients undergoing breast implant exchange. Adjuvant chemotherapy is a clinically significant risk factor for infection in these patients.

Impact of health disparities on treatment for single-suture craniosynostosis in an era of multimodal care.

Craniosynostosis is the premature fusion of the skull. There are two forms of treatment: open surgery and minimally invasive endoscope-assisted suturectomy. Candidates for endoscopic treatment are less than 6 months of age. The techniques are equally effective; however, endoscopic surgery is associated with less blood loss, minimal tissue disruption, shorter operative time, and shorter hospitalization. In this study, the authors aimed to evaluate the impact of race/ethnicity and insurance status on age of presentation/surgery in children with craniosynostosis to highlight potential disparities in healthcare access. Charts were reviewed for children with craniosynostosis at two tertiary care hospitals in New York City from January 1, 2014, to August 31, 2020. Clinical and demographic data were collected, including variables pertaining to family socioeconomic status, home address/zip code, insurance status (no insurance, Medicaid, or private), race/ethnicity, age and date of presentation for initial consultation, type of surgery performed, and details of hospitalization. Children with unknown race/ethnicity and those with syndromic craniosynostosis were excluded. The data were analyzed via t-tests and chi-square tests for statistical significance (p < 0.05). A total of 121 children were identified; 62 surgeries were performed open and 59 endoscopically. The mean age at initial presentation of the cohort was 6.68 months, and on the day of surgery it was 8.45 months. Age at presentation for the open surgery cohort compared with the endoscopic cohort achieved statistical significance at 11.33 months (SD 12.41) for the open cohort and 1.86 months (SD 1.1473) for the endoscopic cohort (p < 0.0001). Age on the day of surgery for the open cohort versus the endoscopic cohort demonstrated statistical significance at 14.19 months (SD 15.05) and 2.58 months (SD 1.030), respectively. A statistically significant difference between the two groups was noted with regard to insurance status (p = 0.0044); the open surgical group comprised more patients without insurance and with Medicaid compared with the endoscopic group. The racial composition of the two groups reached statistical significance when comparing proportions of White, Black, Hispanic, Asian, and other (p = 0.000815), with significantly more Black and Hispanic patients treated in the open surgical group. The results demonstrate a relationship between race and lack of insurance or Medicaid status, and type of surgery received; Black and Hispanic children and children with Medicaid were more likely to present later and undergo open surgery.