Evaluation of two-phase sample transport upon ablation of gelatin as a proxy for soft biological matrices using nanosecond laser ablation - inductively coupled plasma - mass spectrometry.

BACKGROUND: Recent papers on LA-ICP-MS have reported that certain elements are transported in particulate form, others in gaseous form and still others in a combination of both upon ablation of C-based materials. These two phases display different transport behaviour characteristics, potentially causing smearing in elemental maps, and could be processed differently in the ICP which raises concerns as to accuracy of quantification and emphasizes the need for matrix-matching of external standards. This work aims at a better understanding of two-phase sample transport by evaluating the peak profile changes observed upon varying parameters such as laser energy density and wavelength. RESULTS: It is demonstrated that upon ablation of gelatin, elements are transported predominantly in particulate phase, but already at low laser energy density, a significant fraction of some elements is transported in the gaseous phase, which is even more expressed at higher energy density. This behaviour is element-specific since the ratio of the signal intensity for the analyte element transported in gas phase to the total signal intensity was 0 % for 23Na, 43 % for 66Zn and as high as 95 % for 13C using a 193 nm laser. The results also suggest an effect of the laser wavelength, as all elements show either the same or higher amount of gas phase formation upon ablating with 213 nm versus 193 nm. It was even established that elements that fully occur in particulate form upon ablation using 193 nm laser radiation are partly converted into gaseous phase when using 213 nm. SIGNIFICANCE: This work provides a thorough investigation of the underexposed phenomenon of two-phase sample transport upon ablation of biological samples upon via LA-ICP-MS. It is shown that for some elements a fraction of the ablated material is converted and transported in the gas phase, which can lead to significant smearing effects. As such, it is important to evaluate element-specific peak profiles on beforehand and, if necessary, adapt instrument settings and slow down data acquisition.

Laser Ablation for Nondestructive Sampling of Microplastics in Single-Particle ICP-Mass Spectrometry.

In this work, laser ablation (LA) was characterized as a method for sampling and introducing microplastic particles (MPs) into an inductively coupled plasma (ICP) for subsequent 13C+ monitoring using an ICP-mass spectrometer operated in single-event mode. MPs of different types (PS, PMMA, and PVC) and sizes (2-20 µm) were introduced intactly. The laser energy density did not affect the particle sampling across a wide range (0.25-6.00 J cm-2). Single-shot analysis separated clustered MPs (2-7 MPs per cluster) during the LA and particle transport processes, allowing the temporally resolved analysis of the individual constituting MPs. Line scanning showed superior performance when using a small laser beam diameter combined with a high repetition rate. The 13C+ signal intensity correlated linearly (R2 >0.9945) with the absolute C mass in a 2-10 µm size range, while the use of He in the collision-reaction cell (CRC) allowed extension of the linear range to 20 µm. The LA approach generated narrower 13C+ signal distributions than the traditional solution-based approach (dry versus wet plasma conditions) and proved successful for the analysis of a mixed suspension (containing four sizes of PS MPs in a 2-5 µm size range) and for sampling MPs from PVDF and glass microfiber filters, with the latter offering a lower background.

Quantitative mapping of mercury and selenium in mushroom fruit bodies with laser ablation-inductively coupled plasma-mass spectrometry.

This work describes the development of a novel method for quantitative mapping of Hg and Se in mushroom fruit body tissues with laser ablation coupled to inductively coupled plasma-mass spectrometry (LA-ICP-MS). Different parameters of the protocol for preparation of the standards used for quantification via external calibration were assessed, e.g., the dissolution temperature of gelatin standards and the addition of chitosan and L-cysteine as additives to the gelatin-based calibration droplets to better match the sample matrix. While chitosan was not suited for this purpose, the presence of L-cysteine considerably improved the figures of merit of the calibration, leading to limits of detection of 0.006 and 0.3 µg g-1 for Hg and Se, respectively, at a pixel size of 20 × 20 µm. Further, an in-house reference material, ideally suited for the validation of the method for application to mushroom samples, was successfully prepared from a paste of Boletus edulis. The newly developed method was used to investigate the distribution of Hg and Se in tissue sections of five porcini mushroom individuals of three different species (Boletus edulis, Boletus aereus, and Boletus pinophilus) and one sample of a parasol mushroom (Macrolepiota procera). For one sample, additional areas were ablated at higher spatial resolution, with a laser spot size down to 5 µm, which allows a detailed investigation of the spatial distribution of Hg and Se in mushrooms.

Photothermal nanofibres enable safe engineering of therapeutic cells.

Nanoparticle-sensitized photoporation is an upcoming approach for the intracellular delivery of biologics, combining high efficiency and throughput with excellent cell viability. However, as it relies on close contact between nanoparticles and cells, its translation towards clinical applications is hampered by safety and regulatory concerns. Here we show that light-sensitive iron oxide nanoparticles embedded in biocompatible electrospun nanofibres induce membrane permeabilization by photothermal effects without direct cellular contact with the nanoparticles. The photothermal nanofibres have been successfully used to deliver effector molecules, including CRISPR-Cas9 ribonucleoprotein complexes and short interfering RNA, to adherent and suspension cells, including embryonic stem cells and hard-to-transfect T cells, without affecting cell proliferation or phenotype. In vivo experiments furthermore demonstrated successful tumour regression in mice treated with chimeric antibody receptor T cells in which the expression of programmed cell death protein 1 (PD1) is downregulated after nanofibre photoporation with short interfering RNA to PD1. In conclusion, cell membrane permeabilization with photothermal nanofibres is a promising concept towards the safe and more efficient production of engineered cells for therapeutic applications, including stem cell or adoptive T cell therapy.

Feasibility of Mechanical Extrusion to Coat Nanoparticles with Extracellular Vesicle Membranes.

Biomimetic functionalization to confer stealth and targeting properties to nanoparticles is a field of intense study. Extracellular vesicles (EV), sub-micron delivery vehicles for intercellular communication, have unique characteristics for drug delivery. We investigated the top-down functionalization of gold nanoparticles with extracellular vesicle membranes, including both lipids and associated membrane proteins, through mechanical extrusion. EV surface-exposed membrane proteins were confirmed to help avoid unwanted elimination by macrophages, while improving autologous uptake. EV membrane morphology, protein composition and orientation were found to be unaffected by mechanical extrusion. We implemented complementary EV characterization methods, including transmission- and immune-electron microscopy, and nanoparticle tracking analysis, to verify membrane coating, size and zeta potential of the EV membrane-cloaked nanoparticles. While successful EV membrane coating of the gold nanoparticles resulted in lower macrophage uptake, low yield was found to be a significant downside of the extrusion approach. Our data incentivize more research to leverage EV membrane biomimicking as a unique drug delivery approach in the near future.

Sub-micrometer Nanosecond LA-ICP-MS Imaging at Pixel Acquisition Rates above 250 Hz via a Low-Dispersion Setup.

The analytical figures of merit of a low-dispersion (ultrafast) ablation cell geometry within the Cobalt ablation chamber, integrated into a nanosecond laser ablation-inductively coupled plasma-mass spectrometer system, are reported. The system was investigated for its capability for fast high-resolution elemental imaging. A spot of 0.6 µm diameter was achieved on the sample surface by aperture imaging of a 10 µm pinhole. The resulting conical crater (0.6 µm ⌀ × 130 nm↓) morphology in a Au-coated glass target and carbon-coated silica wafer was characterized with atomic force microscopy. The Cobalt ablation chamber is based around a motorized height-adjustable tube cell, which allows modulating the sampling distance, i.e. the distance between the sample surface and the cell inlet, in a dynamic manner. This distance was observed to influence the single pulse response profile. The variation of the average signal intensity at multiple sample heights within a range of 0.5 mm was <3% RSD. Under optimum conditions, single pulse responses with a full width at 10% of the maximum peak intensity (FW0.1M) of ∼1 ms can be achieved for 238U upon ablation of NIST SRM612 glass, effectively opening the way to pixel acquisition rates up to 1 kHz. To demonstrate the potential of this technology, the elemental distribution of Zn in small intestine villi of mice subjected to a Zn-enriched diet was imaged using the 0.6 µm spot size, and rapid imaging of a zircon grain cross-section was performed.

Nanosecond Laser Ablation-Multicollector Inductively Coupled Plasma-Mass Spectrometry for in Situ Fe Isotopic Analysis of Micrometeorites: Application to Micrometer-Sized Glassy Cosmic Spherules.

This work evaluates the use of nanosecond laser ablation-multicollector inductively coupled plasma-mass spectrometry (ns-LA-MC-ICP-MS) for Fe isotopic analysis of glassy cosmic spherules. Several protocols for data acquisition from the transient signals were compared, with the integration method, i.e., isotope ratios obtained by dividing the corresponding signal intensities integrated over the selected signal segment, providing the best precision. The bias caused by instrumental mass discrimination was corrected for by a combination of internal correction using Ni as an internal standard (coming from a conebulized standard solution) and external correction using a matrix-matched standard. Laser spot size and repetition rate were adapted to match the signal intensities for sample and standard within ±10%. For in situ isotopic analysis, the precision of the δ56Fe values ranged between 0.02 and 0.11‰ (1 SD, based on 4 measurement sessions, each based on ablation along 5 lines for 30 s each) and 0.03-0.17‰ (SD, based on 3 measurement sessions) for glass reference materials and micrometeorites, respectively. Despite this excellent reproducibility, the variation of the isotope ratios along a single ablation line indicated isotopic inhomogeneity exceeding 1‰ in some micrometeorites. Isotopic analysis via pneumatic nebulization MC-ICP-MS, after sample digestion and chromatographic Fe isolation, was performed to validate the results obtained by in situ isotopic analysis, and good agreement was achieved between the δ-values obtained via both approaches and with those reported in literature for MPI-DING and USGS glass reference materials. Also for the glassy cosmic spherules, overall, there was a good match between the ns-LA-MC-ICP-MS and solution MC-ICP-MS results.

Author Correction: Interactions of Cisplatin and Daunorubicin at the Chromatin Level.

An amendment to this paper has been published and can be accessed via a link at the top of the paper.

Interactions of Cisplatin and Daunorubicin at the Chromatin Level.

Unexpectedly, the widely used anticancer agents Cisplatin (Cis-Pt) and Daunorubicin (Dauno) exhibited cell type- and concentration-dependent synergy or antagonism in vitro. We attempted to interpret these effects in terms of the changes elicited by the drugs in the chromatin, the target held primarily responsible for the cytotoxicity of both agents. We measured the effect of Cis-Pt on the levels of Dauno in different cell compartments, the effect of Cis-Pt on Dauno-induced nucleosome eviction, and assessed the influence of Dauno on DNA platination in flow- and laser scanning cytometry as well as in laser ablation-inductively coupled plasma-mass spectrometry assays. We show that the two drugs antagonize each other through a decrease of interstrand crosslinks upon co-treatment with Dauno, and also via the diminished Dauno uptake in the presence of Cis-Pt, and both effects are observed already at low Dauno concentrations. At high Dauno concentrations synergy becomes dominant because histone eviction by Dauno intercalation into the DNA is enhanced in the presence of co-treatment with Cis-Pt. These interactions may have an impact on the efficacy of combination treatment protocols, considering the long retention time of DNA adducts formed by both agents.

High-resolution imaging and single-cell analysis via laser ablation-inductively coupled plasma-mass spectrometry for the determination of membranous receptor expression levels in breast cancer cell lines using receptor-specific hybrid tracers.

This work evaluates the possibility of placement of high-resolution imaging and single-cell analysis via laser ablation-inductively coupled plasma-mass spectrometry (LA-ICP-MS) within precision medicine by assessing the suitability of LA-ICP-MS as a micro-analytical technique for the localization and quantification of membranous receptors in heterogeneous cell samples that express both the membrane-bound receptors C-X-C chemokine receptor type 4 (CXCR4) and epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR). Staining of the breast cancer cell lines MDA-MB-231 X4 and MDA-MB-468 was achieved using receptor-specific hybrid tracers, containing both a fluorophore and a DTPA single-lanthanide chelate. Prior to LA-ICP-MS imaging, fluorescence confocal microscopy (FCM) imaging was performed to localize the receptors, hereby enabling direct comparison. Based on the different expression levels of CXCR4 and EGFR, a distinction could be made between the cell lines using both imaging modalities. Furthermore, FCM and LA-ICP-MS demonstrated complementary characteristics, as a more distinct discrimination could be made between both cell lines based on the EGFR-targeting hybrid tracer via LA-ICP-MS, due to the intrinsic CXCR4-related green fluorescent protein (GFP) signal present in the MDA-MB-231 X4 cells. Employing state-of-the-art LA-ICP-MS instrumentation in bidirectional area scanning mode for sub-cellular imaging of MDA-MB-231 X4 cells enabled the specific binding of the CXCR4-targeting hybrid tracer to the cell membrane to be clearly demonstrated. The stretching of cells over the glass substrate led to a considerably higher signal response for pixels at the cell edges, relative to the more central pixels. The determination of the expression levels of CXCR4 and EGFR for the MDA-MB-468 cell line was performed using LA-ICP-MS single-cell analysis (sc-LA-ICP-MS) and external calibration, based on the quantitative ablation of Ho-spiked dried gelatin droplet standards. Additionally, a second calibration approach was applied based on spot ablation of highly homogeneous dried gelatin gels in combination with the determination of the ablated volume using atomic force microscopy (AFM) and yielded results which were in good agreement with the expression levels determined via flow cytometry (FC) and mass cytometry (MC). Hybrid tracers enable a direct comparison between (i) FCM and LA-ICP-MS imaging for the evaluation of the microscopic binding pattern and between (ii) FC, MC and sc-LA-ICP-MS for the quantification of receptor expression levels in single cells.

Correction to: Three-dimensional reconstruction of the distribution of elemental tags in single cells using laser ablation ICP-mass spectrometry via registration approaches.

The authors would like to call the reader's attention to the fact that unfortunately the originally provided affiliation for Dr. Tomoko Asaoka was not correct.

Three-dimensional reconstruction of the distribution of elemental tags in single cells using laser ablation ICP-mass spectrometry via registration approaches.

This paper describes a workflow towards the reconstruction of the three-dimensional elemental distribution profile within human cervical carcinoma cells (HeLa), at a spatial resolution down to 1 µm, employing state-of-the-art laser ablation-inductively coupled plasma-mass spectrometry (LA-ICP-MS) instrumentation. The suspended cells underwent a series of fixation/embedding protocols and were stained with uranyl acetate and an Ir-based DNA intercalator. A priori, laboratory-based absorption micro-computed tomography (µ-CT) was applied to acquire a reference frame of the morphology of the cells and their spatial distribution before sectioning. After CT analysis, a trimmed 300 × 300 × 300 µm3 block was sectioned into a sequential series of 132 sections with a thickness of 2 µm, which were subjected to LA-ICP-MS imaging. A pixel acquisition rate of 250 pixels s-1 was achieved, through a bidirectional scanning strategy. After acquisition, the two-dimensional elemental images were reconstructed using the timestamps in the laser log file. The synchronization of the data required an improved optimization algorithm, which forces the pixels of scans in different ablation directions to be spatially coherent in the direction orthogonal to the scan direction. The volume was reconstructed using multiple registration approaches. Registration using the section outline itself as a fiducial marker resulted into a volume which was in good agreement with the morphology visualized in the µ-CT volume. The 3D µ-CT volume could be registered to the LA-ICP-MS volume, consisting of 2.9 × 107 voxels, and the nucleus dimensions in 3D space could be derived.

Identification of platinum nanoparticles in road dust leachate by single particle inductively coupled plasma-mass spectrometry.

Elevated platinum (Pt) concentrations are found in road dust as a result of emissions from catalytic converters in vehicles. This study investigates the occurrence of Pt in road dust collected in Ghent (Belgium) and Gothenburg (Sweden). Total Pt contents, determined by tandem ICP-mass spectrometry (ICP-MS/MS), were in the range of 5 to 79ngg-1, comparable to the Pt content in road dust of other medium-sized cities. Further sample characterization was performed by single particle (sp) ICP-MS following an ultrasonic extraction procedure using stormwater runoff for leaching. The method was found to be suitable for the characterization of Pt nanoparticles in road dust leachates. The extraction was optimized using road dust reference material BCR-723, for which an extraction efficiency of 2.7% was obtained by applying 144kJ of ultrasonic energy. Using this method, between 0.2% and 18% of the Pt present was extracted from road dust samples. spICP-MS analysis revealed that Pt in the leachate is entirely present as nanoparticles of sizes between 9 and 21nm. Although representing only a minor fraction of the total content in road dust, the nanoparticulate Pt leachate is most susceptible to biological uptake and hence most relevant in terms of bioavailability.

Fast High-Resolution Laser Ablation-Inductively Coupled Plasma Mass Spectrometry Imaging of the Distribution of Platinum-Based Anticancer Compounds in Multicellular Tumor Spheroids.

Multicellular tumor spheroid models serve as an important three-dimensional in vitro cell model system as they mimic the complex tumor microenvironment and thus have contributed to valuable assays in drug discovery studies. In this study, we present a state-of-the-art laser ablation-inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (LA-ICPMS) setup for high spatial resolution elemental imaging of multicellular tumor spheroids and an approach to account for variations in cell density. A low dispersion LA-ICPMS setup was employed, providing accelerated throughput and high sensitivity and permitting a lateral image resolution down to ∼2.5 µm for phosphorus and platinum in HCT116 colon cancer spheroids upon treatment with the clinically used anticancer drug oxaliplatin. Phosphorus was introduced as scalar to compensate for differences in cell density and tissue thickness and the Pt/P ratios together with the high resolution adopted in our approach allows the differentiation of platinum accumulation within each part of the morphology of the tumor spheroids (layers of proliferating, quiescent, and necrotic cells).

Three-Dimensional Reconstruction of the Tissue-Specific Multielemental Distribution within Ceriodaphnia dubia via Multimodal Registration Using Laser Ablation ICP-Mass Spectrometry and X-ray Spectroscopic Techniques.

In this work, the three-dimensional elemental distribution profile within the freshwater crustacean Ceriodaphnia dubia was constructed at a spatial resolution down to 5 µm via a data fusion approach employing state-of-the-art laser ablation-inductively coupled plasma-time-of-flight mass spectrometry (LA-ICP-TOFMS) and laboratory-based absorption microcomputed tomography (µ-CT). C. dubia was exposed to elevated Cu, Ni, and Zn concentrations, chemically fixed, dehydrated, stained, and embedded, prior to µ-CT analysis. Subsequently, the sample was cut into 5 µm thin sections that were subjected to LA-ICP-TOFMS imaging. Multimodal image registration was performed to spatially align the 2D LA-ICP-TOFMS images relative to the corresponding slices of the 3D µ-CT reconstruction. Mass channels corresponding to the isotopes of a single element were merged to improve the signal-to-noise ratios within the elemental images. In order to aid the visual interpretation of the data, LA-ICP-TOFMS data were projected onto the µ-CT voxels representing tissue. Additionally, the image resolution and elemental sensitivity were compared to those obtained with synchrotron radiation based 3D confocal µ-X-ray fluorescence imaging upon a chemically fixed and air-dried C. dubia specimen.

High-resolution laser ablation-inductively coupled plasma-mass spectrometry imaging of cisplatin-induced nephrotoxic side effects.

Two-dimensional elemental mapping (bioimaging) via laser ablation-inductively coupled plasma-mass spectrometry (LA-ICP-MS) was performed on 5 µm thick formalin-fixed, paraffin-embedded kidney tissue sections from Cynomolgus monkeys administered with increasing pharmacological doses of cisplatin. Laterally resolved pixels of 1 µm were achieved, enabling elemental analysis on a (sub-)cellular level. Zones of high Pt response were observed in the renal cortex, where proximal tubules are present, the epithelium of which is responsible for partial reabsorption of cisplatin. Histopathological evaluation, of hematoxylin and eosin-stained serial sections, adjacent to the sections probed via LA-ICP-MS, revealed minimal to mild cisplatin-related lesions (<100 µm) in the renal cortex. Necrotic proximal tubules with sloughed epithelial cells in their lumen could be linked directly to the areas with the highest accumulation of cisplatin, indicating a direct link between cellular concentration and toxicity, thereby providing more insight into the mechanisms through which renal damage occurs.