A critically co-endangered feather louse Forficuloecus pezopori n. sp. (Phthiraptera: Philopteridae) detected through conservation intervention for the western ground parrot Pezoporus flaviventris (Psittaculidae).

Forficuloecus pezopori Martin, Keatley & Ash n. sp. from the western ground parrot Pezoporus flaviventris North, 1911 (Psittaculidae) is proposed based on combined evidence from morphology and COI mitochondrial DNA. Phylogenetically, the new species is closest to its two known congeners from Western Australia: F. josephi Price, Johnson & Palma, 2008 from Bourke's parrot Neopsephotus bourkii (Gould, 1841) and the scarlet-chested parrot Neophema splendida (Gould, 1841), and F. palmai Guimarães, 1985 from the Australian ringneck parrot Barnardius zonarius (Shaw, 1805). Morphologically it is distinguishable by abdominal chaetotaxy and characters of the male genitalia, and is most similar to F. josephi and F. greeni Guimarães, 1985; the latter has no representative sequence data. Forficuloecus pezopori is the eleventh species of its genus and the only metazoan parasite known from P. flaviventris, which is among Australia's most endangered vertebrates. The new louse is apparently restricted to P. flaviventris and is therefore co-endangered, facing at least the same likelihood of extinction as its host. We recommend ongoing translocation and field monitoring efforts for P. flaviventris include monitoring but not treatment for lice infestations in otherwise healthy individuals, and that the care management plan for captive P. flaviventris considers that F. pezopori is similarly imperilled.

Gross and histopathological findings in hindlimb paralysis syndrome in wild Carnaby's black cockatoos (Zanda laitirostris).

The aim of this study was to describe the gross and histopathological features of a neurological syndrome in endangered Western Australian Carnaby's black cockatoos (Zanda laitirostris) that was first observed in 2012. The syndrome, named hindlimb paralysis syndrome in Carnaby's cockatoos (CHiPS), is characterized by annual outbreaks of hindlimb paralysis with occasional loss of deep pain and cloacal tone, typically occurring between January and March. Previous limited investigations suggested a possible toxic aetiology. Full gross necropsy and histopathology examinations were performed on 17 CHiPS cases and on 11 control birds for reference. Histopathological examination was carried out on all major organs including brain, spinal cord, brachial plexus, sciatic nerve and wing and hindlimb muscles. Gross and histopathological examinations did not elucidate a definitive cause of the clinical signs seen in CHiPS cases. There were no substantial gross or histopathological changes within the brain, spinal cord, sciatic nerve or brachial plexus that could explain the hindlimb paralysis. The most noteworthy changes were seen in the hindlimb and wing muscles, with a monophasic to polyphasic myopathy present in the hindlimb muscles of 15 of the 17 CHiPS cases and in the wing muscles in 11 of those cases. The cause and significance of the myopathy is unclear and requires further investigation. Based on the above findings, the most likely differential diagnoses include neurotoxicoses (eg, organophosphate, organochlorine and carbamate) and, less likely, myotoxicosis (eg, ionophore toxicosis), nutritional myopathy (eg, vitamin E/selenium deficiency) or botulism.

Safety and immunogenicity of an adjuvanted recombinant spike protein-based severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) vaccine, SpikeVet™, in selected Carnivora, Primates and Artiodactyla in Australian zoos.

Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) can infect a broad range of animal species and has been associated with severe disease in some taxa. Few studies have evaluated optimal strategies to mitigate the risk to susceptible zoo animals. This study evaluated the safety and immunogenicity of a protein-based veterinary SARS-CoV-2 vaccine (SpikeVet™) in zoo animals. Two to three doses of SpikeVet™ were administered intramuscularly or subcutaneously 3-4 weeks apart to 354 zoo animals representing 38 species. SpikeVet™ was very well tolerated across all species. Minor adverse effects were observed in 1.69% of animals vaccinated, or 1.04% of vaccine doses administered. Preliminary immunogenicity analyses in representative carnivores (meerkats, lions) and an artiodactylid (domestic goat) showed SpikeVet™-immunized animals developed serum antibodies able to neutralize a range of SARS-CoV-2 variants, including the vaccine-homologous Wuhan and Mu variants, as well as vaccine-heterologous Omicron BA.2 and XBB.1 strains. Prior to vaccination, all eight lions were seropositive for Wuhan strain by surrogate viral neutralization testing, suggesting past infection with SARS-CoV-2 or cross-reactive antibodies generated by another closely related coronavirus. These results from a range of zoo species support the ongoing development of SpikeVet™ as a safe and effective veterinary SARS-CoV-2 vaccine.

A discovery down under: decoding the draft genome sequence of Pantoea stewartii from Australia's Critically Endangered western ground parrot/kyloring (Pezoporus flaviventris).

Pantoea stewartii, a plant pathogen, is primarily transmitted through contaminated seeds and insect vectors, with the corn flea beetle (Chaetocnema pulicaria) being the primary carrier. P. stewartii is a bacterium belonging to the order Enterobacterales and can lead to crop diseases that have a significant economic impact worldwide. Due to its high potential for spread, P. stewartii is classified as a quarantine organism in numerous countries. Despite its impact on agriculture, the limited genome sequences of P. stewartii hamper understanding of its pathogenicity and host specificity, and the development of effective control strategies. In this study, a P. stewartii strain (C10109_Jinnung) was discovered in the faecal matter of the Critically Endangered western ground parrot/kyloring (Pezoporus flaviventris) in Australia, which to our knowledge is the first reported P. stewartii genome from a bird source. Whole-genome sequencing and phylogenomic analysis of strain C10109_Jinnung, obtained from a captive psittacine, provides new insights into the genetic diversity and potential transmission route for the spread of P. stewartii beyond insects and plants, where P. stewartii is typically studied. Our findings provide new insights into the potential transmission route for spread of P. stewartii and expand the known transmission agents beyond insects and plants. Expanding the catalogue of P. stewartii genomes is fundamental to improving understanding of the pathogenicity, evolution and dissemination, and to develop effective control strategies to reduce the substantial economic losses associated with P. stewartii in various crops and the potential impact of endangered animal species.

Fungal Rhinosinusitis Caused by a Curvularia sp. Infection in a Female Sumatran Orangutan: A Case Report.

Mycotic nasal cavity and paranasal sinus infections in non-human primates (NHPs) are relatively uncommon diseases of the upper respiratory tract. This case study describes the clinical and pathological features as well as the diagnostic techniques and interventions applied to treat the associated disease. A 23-year-old primiparous female Sumatran orangutan residing at Perth Zoo in Western Australia developed intermittent episodes of right-sided epistaxis. An ulcerative nasal mass was identified from a diagnostic endoscopy. The mass was initially biopsied and showed the morphological characteristics of a dematiaceous fungal organism upon a histological examination. There were prominent mucosal and submucosal granulomatous infiltrates containing histocytes, giant cells, and lymphocytes admixed with fewer numbers of neutrophils and eosinophils surrounding the fungal organism. The organism was identified as Curvularia sp. by the fungal characteristics associated with the histopathology, culture growth, and PCR analysis. The mass was subsequently removed with endoscopic sinus surgery (ESS) and the orangutan was medically treated with itraconazole for several months. The recovery was uneventful and the orangutan returned to full health.

Streamlining Disease Risk Analysis for Wildlife Using the Shark Bay Bandicoot as a Model.

Disease risk analysis (DRA) is a process for identifying significant disease risks and proposing measures to mitigate those risks. Although numerous methodologies for DRA exist, the IUCN Disease Risk Analysis Manual Jakob-Hoff et al. (World Organisation for Animal Health, Paris, pp 160, 2014) remains the gold standard for wild animal translocations. In some cases, however, constraints of time or resources demand compromises on the ideal methodology, and a cost-benefit assessment is required to determine the best approach. We propose a methodology modified from Jakob-Hoff et al. (World Organisation for Animal Health, Paris, pp 160, 2014) and Sainsbury and Vaughan-Higgins (Conserv Biol 26:442-452, 2012), using translocations of the Shark Bay bandicoot (SBB) (Perameles bougainville) as an example. In this study, 44 hazards were identified and described for Peramelidae species. We used hazard prioritization and "scoping" to develop a shortlist of hazards for detailed risk assessment, which excluded 35 of these hazards from further assessment. This approach enabled timely, efficient and cost-effective completion of the DRA while maintaining transparent evaluation of all disease risks. We developed a disease risk management strategy for SBB based on structured, evidence-based analysis of current information and established biosecurity practices and disease screening recommendations for future translocations. Our approach demonstrates a practical process for DRA and risk mitigation, which delivered management outcomes despite limited resources, variable knowledge of disease epidemiology and uncertain translocation pathways for the target species. Limitations are acknowledged, and further research will aim to objectively test this methodology compared to other available methods.

Comparison of some cardiopulmonary effects of etorphine and thiafentanil during the chemical immobilization of blesbok (Damaliscus pygargus phillipsi).

OBJECTIVE: To determine the cardiopulmonary effects of etorphine and thiafentanil for immobilization of blesbok. STUDY DESIGN: Blinded, randomized, two-way crossover study. ANIMALS: A group of eight adult female blesbok. METHODS: Animals were immobilized twice, once with etorphine (0.09 mg kg-1) and once with thiafentanil (0.09 mg kg-1) administered intramuscularly by dart. Immobilization quality was assessed and analysed by Wilcoxon signed-rank test. Time to final recumbency was compared between treatments by one-way analysis of variance. Cardiopulmonary effects including respiratory rate (ƒR), arterial blood pressures and arterial blood gases were measured. A linear mixed model was used to assess the effects of drug treatments over the 40 minute immobilization period. Significant differences between treatments, for treatment over time as well as effect of treatment by time on the variables, were analysed (p < 0.05). RESULTS: There was no statistical difference (p = 0.186) between treatments for time to recumbency. The mean ƒR was lower with etorphine (14 breaths minute-1) than with thiafentanil (19 breaths minute-1, p = 0.034). The overall mean PaCO2 was higher with etorphine [45 mmHg (6.0 kPa)] than with thiafentanil [41 mmHg (5.5 kPa), p = 0.025], whereas PaO2 was lower with etorphine [53 mmHg (7.1 kPa)] than with thiafentanil [64 mmHg (8.5 kPa), p < 0.001]. The systolic arterial pressure measured throughout all time points was higher with thiafentanil than with etorphine (p = 0.04). The difference varied from 30 mmHg at 20 minutes after recumbency to 14 mmHg (standard error difference 2.7 mmHg) at 40 minutes after recumbency. Mean and diastolic arterial pressures were significantly higher with thiafentanil at 20 and 25 minute measurement points only (p < 0.001). CONCLUSIONS: Both drugs caused clinically relevant hypoxaemia; however, it was less severe with thiafentanil. Ventilation was adequate. Hypertension was greater and immobilization scores were lower with thiafentanil.

Comparison of cardiopulmonary effects of etorphine and thiafentanil administered as sole agents for immobilization of impala (Aepyceros melampus).

OBJECTIVE: To compare the cardiopulmonary effects of the opioids etorphine and thiafentanil for immobilization of impala. STUDY DESIGN: Two-way crossover, randomized study. ANIMALS: A group of eight adult female impala. METHODS: Impala were given two treatments: 0.09 mg kg-1 etorphine or 0.09 mg kg-1 thiafentanil via remote dart injection. Time to recumbency, quality of immobilization and recovery were assessed. Respiratory rate, heart rate (HR), mean arterial blood pressure (MAP) and arterial blood gases were measured. A linear mixed model was used to analyse the effects of treatments, treatments over time and interactions of treatment and time (p < 0.05). RESULTS: Time to recumbency was significantly faster with thiafentanil (2.0 ± 0.8 minutes) than with etorphine (3.9 ± 1.6 minutes; p = 0.007). Both treatments produced bradypnoea, which was more severe at 5 minutes with thiafentanil (7 ± 4 breaths minute-1) than with etorphine (13 ± 12 breaths minute-1; p = 0.004). HR increased with both treatments but significantly decreased over time when etorphine (132 ± 17 to 82 ± 11 beats minute-1) was compared with thiafentanil (113 ± 22 to 107 ± 36 beats minute-1; p < 0.001). Both treatments caused hypertension which was more profound with thiafentanil (mean overall MAP = 140 ± 14 mmHg; p < 0.001). Hypoxaemia occurred with both treatments but was greater with thiafentanil [PaO2 37 ± 13 mmHg (4.9 kPa)] than with etorphine [45 ± 16 mmHg (6.0 kPa)] 5 minutes after recumbency (p < 0.001). After 30 minutes, PaO2 increased to 59 ± 10 mmHg (7.9 kPa) with both treatments (p < 0.001). CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE: The shorter time to recumbency with thiafentanil may allow easier and faster retrieval in the field. However, thiafentanil caused greater hypertension, and ventilatory effects during the first 10 minutes, after administration.

Streptococcus iniae associated mass marine fish kill off Western Australia.

Streptococcus iniae causes high mortality in cultured and wild fish stocks globally. Since the first report in captive Amazon river dolphins Inia geoffrensis in 1976, it has emerged in finfish across all continents except Antarctica. In March 2016, an estimated 17000 fish were observed dead and dying along a remote 70 km stretch of the Kimberley coastline north of Broome, Western Australia. Affected species included finfish (lionfish Pterois volitans, angelfish Pomacanthus sp., stripey snapper Lutjanus carponotatus, sand bass Psammoperca waigiensis, yellowtail grunter Amniataba caudavittata, damselfish Pomacentridae sp.), flatback sea turtles Natator depressus, and olive (Aipysurus laevis) and black-ringed (Hydrelaps darwiniensis) sea snakes. Moribund fish collected during the event exhibited exophthalmia and abnormal behaviour, such as spiralling on the surface or within the water column. Subsequent histopathological examination of 2 fish species revealed bacterial septicaemia with chains of Gram-positive cocci seen in multiple organs and within brain tissue. S. iniae was isolated and identified by bacterial culture, species-specific PCR, Matrix-Assisted Laser Desorption Ionisation Time-Of-Flight (MALDI-TOF) and biochemical testing. This is the first report of S. iniae associated with a major multi-species wild marine fish kill in Australia. Extreme weather events in the region including a marked decrease in water temperatures, followed by an extended period of above-average coastal water temperatures, were implicated as stressors potentially contributing to this outbreak.

A Retrospective Study of Macropod Progressive Periodontal Disease ("Lumpy Jaw") in Captive Macropods Across Australia and Europe: Using Data from the Past to Inform Future Macropod Management.

Macropod Progressive Periodontal Disease (MPPD) is a well-recognised disease that causes high morbidity and mortality in captive macropods worldwide. Epidemiological data on MMPD are limited, although multiple risk factors associated with a captive environment appear to contribute to the development of clinical disease. The identification of risk factors associated with MPPD would assist with the development of preventive management strategies, potentially reducing mortality. Veterinary and husbandry records from eight institutions across Australia and Europe were analysed in a retrospective cohort study (1995 to 2016), examining risk factors for the development of MPPD. A review of records for 2759 macropods found incidence rates (IR) and risk of infection differed between geographic regions and individual institutions. The risk of developing MPPD increased with age, particularly for macropods >10 years (Australia Incidence Rate Ratio (IRR) 7.63, p < 0.001; Europe IRR 7.38, p < 0.001). Prognosis was typically poor, with 62.5% mortality reported for Australian and European regions combined. Practical recommendations to reduce disease risk have been developed, which will assist zoos in providing optimal long-term health management for captive macropods and, subsequently, have a positive impact on both the welfare and conservation of macropods housed in zoos globally.

Do potent immobilising-opioids induce different physiological effects in impala and blesbok?

Potent opioids are known to cause negative alterations to the physiology of immobilised antelope. How these effects differ between species has not been studied. This study aimed to compare time to recumbence and effects of opioid-based immobilisation on the physiology of impala (Aepyceros melampus) and blesbok (Damaliscus pygargus phillipsi). Eight animals of each species were immobilised, with 0.09 mg/kg etorphine and 0.09 mg/kg thiafentanil respectively, in a randomised two-way cross-over study. Variables measured and analysed by means of a linear mixed model included time to recumbence, heart rate, respiratory rate, arterial blood pressure, blood gases, lactate and glucose. In blesbok, mean time to recumbence was not significantly different with either drug (2.5 minutes and 2.2 min, respectively), but in impala thiafentanil achieved a shorter time to recumbence (2.0 min) than etorphine (3.9 min). Mean heart rates of immobilised impala were within reported physiological limits, but lower in immobilised blesbok when both opioids were used (35 beats/min to 44 beats/min vs. 104 ± 1.4 beats/min resting heart rate). Impala developed severe respiratory compromise and hypoxaemia from both opioids (overall mean PaO2 values ranged from 38 mmHg to 59 mmHg over 30 min). In contrast, blesbok developed only moderate compromise. Therefore, significantly different species-specific physiological responses to potent opioid drugs exist in blesbok and impala. Given that these different responses are clinically relevant, extrapolation of immobilising drug effects from one species of African ungulate to another is not recommended.

HINDLIMB PARALYSIS SYNDROME IN WILD CARNABY'S COCKATOOS (CALYPTORHYNCHUS LATIROSTRIS): A NEW THREAT FOR AN ENDANGERED SPECIES.

Carnaby's Cockatoos (Calyptorhynchus latirostris) are in decline in SW Western Australia from several processes, including habitat loss and fragmentation. However, in recent years, a disease syndrome has also emerged as a significant population threat. Emerging diseases in wildlife have the potential for catastrophic effects on population numbers, especially if a species is experiencing existing pressure from other threatening processes. This article describes an investigation into a hindlimb paralysis syndrome that has occurred in the summer and autumn since 2012 in 84 wild Carnaby's Cockatoos. Recovery from the syndrome has been demonstrated in 21 of 33 cases when supportive therapy was applied. Although a definitive diagnosis has not been obtained, the hypothesized etiology is an organophosphate-induced delayed-onset neuropathy. The syndrome may indicate that interaction between the cockatoos and inland agricultural practices are affecting this migratory species in ways that are, so far, poorly understood.

Subclinical infection of captive Asian elephants (Elephas maximus) in Thailand with elephant endotheliotropic herpesvirus.

Elephant endotheliotropic herpesvirus (EEHV) infection is a conservation threat to the endangered Asian elephant (Elephas maximus), causing fatal hemorrhagic disease in juvenile elephants throughout the world, including Thailand. This study revealed a subclinical EEHV1 infection rate of 5.5% in healthy captive Asian elephants in Thailand (n = 362). The virus was detected in all age classes above one year old, in both sexes, and across the country - even in facilities with no history of hemorrhagic disease (EEHV HD). Subclinical EEHV infection in Thailand urgently requires proper health management.

Corrigendum: A Metataxonomic Tool to Investigate the Diversity of Treponema.

[This corrects the article DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2019.02094.].

A Metataxonomic Tool to Investigate the Diversity of Treponema.

The genus Treponema contains a number of human and animal pathogenic as well as symbiotic bacteria that are found in vastly different anatomical and environmental habitats. Our understanding of the species range, evolution, and biology of these important bacteria is still limited. To explore the diversity of treponemes, we established, validated, and tested a novel metataxonomic approach. As the informative nature of the hypervariable regions of the 16S rRNA gene differ, we first analyzed each variable region independently. Considering the in silico results obtained, we established and validated the sequencing of the V4-region of the 16S rRNA gene using known mixtures of Treponema species as well as a selected number of clinical samples. The metataxonomic approach was able to identify Treponema to a near-species level. We demonstrate that using a spirochete-specific enrichment, our method is applicable to complex microbial communities and large variety of biological samples. The metataxonomic approach described provides a useful method to unravel the full diversity and range of Treponema in various ecosystems.

Dose-effect study of the serotonin agonist R-8-OH-DPAT on opioid-induced respiratory depression in blesbok (Damaliscus pygargus philipsi) and impala (Aepyceros melampus).

OBJECTIVE: To determine whether the R-enantiomer of 8-hydroxy-2-(di-n-propylamino) tetralin (R-8-OH-DPAT) alleviates respiratory depression in antelope species immobilized with etorphine. The experiment also aimed to establish the most clinically effective dose of this serotonin 5- HT1A receptor agonist. ANIMALS: A group of six female blesbok and six female impala. STUDY DESIGN: Each animal was subjected to four immobilization treatments in a prospective four-way crossover design-control treatment consisting of only etorphine at 0.09 mg kg-1 and three treatments consisting of etorphine at 0.09 mg kg-1 combined with 0.005, 0.02 and 0.07 mg kg-1 of R-8-OH-DPAT, respectively. Induction, quality of immobilization and recovery were monitored in each treatment. Physiological variables including heart rate, respiratory rate, arterial blood pressure and blood gases were measured for 35 minutes during immobilization. A linear mixed model was used to assess the effects of treatments over the recumbency period. RESULTS: R-8-OH-DPAT did not influence induction, immobilization or recovery scores. Respiratory rate in blesbok was increased in the medium- and high-dosage R-8-OH-DPAT treatment group. However, this increased respiratory rate did not translate into improvements of arterial partial pressure of oxygen (PaO2) values in the blesbok. The medium and higher dosages of R-8-OH-DPAT in impala led to an improved PaO2 as well as to decreased opioid-induced tachycardia during the first 10 minutes of immobilization. CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE: Previous reports indicated that the racemic mixture of 8-OH-DPAT injected intravenously had a positive effect on blood-gas values in etorphine-treated hypoxemic goats. In this experiment, similar effects could be seen in impala at the higher dosage rates of R-8-OH-DPAT. However, failure to achieve an improvement of blood-gas values in blesbok was an unexpected result. It could be speculated that the dosage, species-specific differences of serotonin receptors or the use of the R-enantiomer of 8-OH-DPAT might play a role.

Pharmacokinetics and bioavailability after intramuscular injection of the 5-HT1A serotonin agonist R-8-hydroxy-2-(di-n-propylamino) tetralin (8-OH-DPAT) in domestic goats (Capra aegagrus hircus).

To determine the bioavailability and pharmacokinetic properties of the serotonin 5-HT1A receptor agonist R-8-OH-DPAT in goats, and 0.1 mg kg-1 R-8-OH-DPAT hydrobromide was administered intramuscularly (i.m.) and intravenously (i.v.) to six goats in a two-phase cross-over design experiment. Venous blood samples were collected from the jugular vein 2, 5, 10, 15, 20, 30, 40 and 60 min following treatment and analysed by liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry. Bioavailability and pharmacokinetic parameters were determined by a one-compartment analysis. Mean bioavailability of R-8-OH-DPAT when injected i.m. was 66%. The mean volume of distribution in the central compartment was 1.47 L kg-1 . The mean plasma body clearance was 0.056 L kg-1  min-1 . All goats injected i.v. and two of six goats injected i.m. showed signs of serotonin toxicity. In conclusion, R-8-OH-DPAT is well absorbed following i.m. injection and the observed pharmacokinetics suggest that administration via dart is feasible. Administration of R-8-OH-DPAT hydrobromide, at a dosage of 0.1 mg kg-1 , resulted in the observation of clinical signs of serotonin toxicity in the goats. It is suggested that dosages for the clinical use of the compound should be lower in order to achieve the desired clinical effect without causing serotonin toxicity.

Infectious Disease Surveillance in the Woylie (Bettongia penicillata).

Wild populations of the critically endangered woylie (Bettongia penicillata) recently declined by 90% in southwest Western Australia. Increased predation is the leading hypothesis for decline, but disease may be playing a role increasing susceptibility to predation. To explore this possibility, we surveyed woylie populations in the wild, in captivity and in a predator-free sanctuary for exposure to, and infection with, four known pathogens of macropods: herpesviruses, Wallal and Warrego orbiviruses, and Toxoplasma gondii. Our study found two of 68 individuals positive for neutralizing antibodies against known macropodid alphaherpesviruses. Three of 45 individuals were PCR positive for a herpesvirus that was shown to be a novel gammaherpesvirus or a new strain/variant of Potoroid Herpesvirus 1. Further sequence information is required to definitively determine its correct classification. There was no evidence of antibodies to orbivirus Wallal and Warrego serogroups, and all serological samples tested for T. gondii were negative. This is the first report of PCR and serological detection of herpesviruses in the woylie. Positive individuals did not demonstrate clinical signs of herpesviral diseases; therefore, the clinical significance of herpesviruses to wild woylie populations remains unclear. Further monitoring for herpesvirus infections will be important to inform disease risk analysis for this virus and determine temporal trends in herpesvirus activity that may relate to population health and conservation outcomes.

Bringing Back a Healthy Buzz? Invertebrate Parasites and Reintroductions: A Case Study in Bumblebees.

Reintroductions can play a key role in the conservation of endangered species. Parasites may impact reintroductions, both positively and negatively, but few case studies of how to manage parasites during reintroductions exist. Bumblebees are in decline at regional and global scales, and reintroductions can be used to re-establish extinct local populations. Here we report on how the risks associated with parasites are being managed in an ongoing reintroduction of the short-haired bumblebee, Bombus subterraneus, to the UK. Disease risk analysis was conducted and disease risk management plans constructed to design a capture-quarantine-release system that minimised the impacts on both the bumblebees and on their natural parasites. Given that bumblebee parasites are (i) generalists, (ii) geographically ubiquitous, and (iii) show evidence of local adaptation, the disease risk management plan was designed to limit the co-introduction of parasites from the source population in Sweden to the destination site in the UK. Results suggest that this process at best eliminated, or at least severely curtailed the co-introduction of parasites, and ongoing updates of the plan enabled minimization of impacts on natural host-parasite dynamics in the Swedish source population. This study suggests that methods designed for reintroductions of vertebrate species can be successfully applied to invertebrates. Future reintroductions of invertebrates where the parasite fauna is less well known should take advantage of next-generation barcoding and multiple survey years prior to the start of reintroductions, to develop comprehensive disease risk management plans.

DEVELOPMENT OF REFERENCE RANGES FOR PLASMA TOTAL CHOLINESTERASE AND BRAIN ACETYLCHOLINESTERASE ACTIVITY IN FREE-RANGING CARNABY'S BLACK-COCKATOOS (CALYPTORHYNCHUS LATIROSTRIS).

Published avian reference ranges for plasma cholinesterase (ChE) and brain acetylcholinesterase (AChE) are numerous. However, a consistently reported recommendation is the need for species- and laboratory-specific reference ranges because of variables, including assay methods, sample storage conditions, season, and bird sex, age, and physiologic status. We developed normal reference ranges for brain AChE and plasma total ChE (tChE) activity for Carnaby's Black-Cockatoos (Calyptorhynchus latirostris) using a standardized protocol (substrate acetylthiocholine at 25 C). We report reference ranges for brain AChE (19-41 µmol/min per g, mean 21±6.38) and plasma tChE (0.41-0.53 µmol/min per mL, mean 0.47±0.11) (n=15). This information will be of use in the ongoing field investigation of a paresis-paralysis syndrome in the endangered Carnaby's Black-Cockatoos, suspected to be associated with exposure to anticholinesterase compounds and add to the paucity of reference ranges for plasma tChE and brain AChE in Australian psittacine birds.