Differences in retinopathy prevalence and associated risk factors across 11 countries in three continents: A cross-sectional study of 156,090 children and adolescents with type 1 diabetes.

OBJECTIVE: To examine the prevalence, time trends, and risk factors of diabetic retinopathy (DR) among youth with type 1 diabetes (T1D) from 11 countries (Australia, Austria, Denmark, England, Germany, Italy, Luxemburg, Netherlands, Slovenia, United States, and Wales). SUBJECTS AND METHODS: Data on individuals aged 10-21 years with T1D for >1 year during the period 2000-2020 were analyzed. We used a cross-sectional design using the most recent year of visit to investigate the time trend. For datasets with longitudinal data, we aggregated the variables per participant and observational year, using data of the most recent year to take the longest observation period into account. DR screening was performed through quality assured national screening programs. Multiple logistic regression models adjusted for the year of the eye examination, age, gender, minority status, and duration of T1D were used to evaluate clinical characteristics and the risk of DR. RESULTS: Data from 156,090 individuals (47.1% female, median age 15.7 years, median duration of diabetes 5.2 years) were included. Overall, the unadjusted prevalence of any DR was 5.8%, varying from 0.0% (0/276) to 16.2% between countries. The probability of DR increased with longer disease duration (aORper-1-year-increase  = 1.04, 95% CI: 1.03-1.04, p < 0.0001), and decreased over time (aORper-1-year-increase  = 0.99, 95% CI: 0.98-1.00, p = 0.0093). Evaluating possible modifiable risk factors in the exploratory analysis, the probability of DR increased with higher HbA1c (aORper-1-mmol/mol-increase-in-HbA1c  = 1.03, 95% CI: 1.03-1.03, p < 0.0001) and was higher among individuals with hypertension (aOR = 1.24, 95% CI: 1.11-1.38, p < 0.0001) and smokers (aOR = 1.30, 95% CI: 1.17-1.44, p < 0.0001). CONCLUSIONS: The prevalence of DR in this large cohort of youth with T1D varied among countries, increased with diabetes duration, decreased over time, and was associated with higher HbA1c, hypertension, and smoking.

Cardiovascular risk management in people with type 1 diabetes: performance using three guidelines.

INTRODUCTION: Cardiovascular disease (CVD) is the leading cause of mortality in individuals with type 1 diabetes mellitus (T1DM). Cardiovascular risk management is therefore essential in the management of individuals with T1DM. This study describes the performance of lipid and blood pressure management in individuals with T1DM using three guidelines. RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODS: Individuals ≥18 years with T1DM, treated with insulin for ≥1 year, visiting Diabeter or the University Medical Center Groningen between January 1, 2018 and December 31, 2018, were included. Lipid and blood pressure management were examined using the Dutch, American Diabetes Association (ADA) and National Institute for Health and Care Excellence (NICE) guidelines. Concordance of recommended and prescribed lipid-lowering (LLM) or antihypertensive medication (AHM) was assessed per guideline and 10-year age groups. Achievement of treatment targets was assessed for those prescribed medication. RESULTS: A total of 1855 individuals with T1DM were included. LLM and AHM was prescribed in 19% and 17%, respectively. In individuals recommended LLM, this was prescribed in 22%-46% according to Dutch, ADA or NICE guideline recommendations. For individuals recommended AHM, this was prescribed in 52%-75%. Recommended and actual prescription of LLM and AHM increased over age for all three guidelines. However, discordance between treatment recommendation and medication prescribed was higher in younger, compared with older, age groups. Low-density lipoprotein-cholesterol targets were achieved by 50% (without CVD) and 31% (with CVD) of those prescribed LLM. The blood pressure target was achieved by 46% of those prescribed AHM. CONCLUSION: This study suggests that there is undertreatment of lipid and blood pressure according to guideline recommendations, particularly in younger age groups. Treatment targets are not met by most individuals prescribed medication, while guidelines recommendations differ considerably. We recommend to investigate the factors influencing undertreatment of lipid and blood pressure management in individuals with T1DM.

Effects of Peri-Conception and Pregnancy Glycemic Variability on Pregnancy and Perinatal Complications in Type 1 Diabetes: A Pilot Study.

BACKGROUND: Not much is known about the effects of glycemic variability (GV) during the pre- and periconception period on pregnancy/perinatal complications. GV could potentially contribute to identification of high-risk pregnancies in women with type 1 diabetes. METHODS: An explorative retrospective cohort study was conducted between January 2014 and May 2019. Glucose data were retrieved from electronic patient charts. Pre-/periconceptional GV and GV during all three trimesters was expressed as mean glucose, standard deviation (SD), Coefficient of Variation (CV), High Blood Glucose Index (HBGI), Low Blood Glucose Index (LBGI) and Average Daily Risk Range (ADRR). Maternal and neonatal complications were summarized using a composite total complication score. Binary logistic regression analyses were conducted to assess associations between the GV measures and a total complication score>3, a maternal complication score>1 and a neonatal complication score>1. RESULTS: Of 63 eligible women, 29 women (38 pregnancies) were included. Women in the group with a total complication score>3 had a significantly higher ADRR at conception (OR 1.1, CI 1.0-1.2, p=0.048). No statistically significant correlations between complication score and any other GV metric besides the ADRR were found. Although not significant, in the group with a complication score>3, odds ratios>1 were found for SD in trimester 1 (OR 1.6, CI 0.6-4.5, p=0.357) and trimester 2 (OR 1.8, CI 0.5-6.2, p=0.376). CONCLUSIONS: Presence of a positive association between GV and pregnancy and perinatal complications depends on which pregnancy period is assessed and the GV metrics that are used.

International comparison of glycaemic control in people with type 1 diabetes: an update and extension.

AIMS: To update and extend a previous cross-sectional international comparison of glycaemic control in people with type 1 diabetes. METHODS: Data were obtained for 520,392 children and adults with type 1 diabetes from 17 population and five clinic-based data sources in countries or regions between 2016 and 2020. Median HbA1c (IQR) and proportions of individuals with HbA1c < 58 mmol/mol (<7.5%), 58-74 mmol/mol (7.5-8.9%) and ≥75 mmol/mol (≥9.0%) were compared between populations for individuals aged <15, 15-24 and ≥25 years. Logistic regression was used to estimate the odds ratio (OR) of HbA1c < 58 mmol/mol (<7.5%) relative to ≥58 mmol/mol (≥7.5%), stratified and adjusted for sex, age and data source. Where possible, changes in the proportion of individuals in each HbA1c category compared to previous estimates were calculated. RESULTS: Median HbA1c varied from 55 to 79 mmol/mol (7.2 to 9.4%) across data sources and age groups so a pooled estimate was deemed inappropriate. OR (95% CI) for HbA1c < 58 mmol/mol (<7.5%) were 0.91 (0.90-0.92) for women compared to men, 1.68 (1.65-1.71) for people aged <15 years and 0.81 (0.79-0.82) aged15-24 years compared to those aged ≥25 years. Differences between populations persisted after adjusting for sex, age and data source. In general, compared to our previous analysis, the proportion of people with an HbA1c  < 58 mmol/l (<7.5%) increased and proportions of people with HbA1c ≥ 75 mmol/mol (≥9.0%) decreased. CONCLUSIONS: Glycaemic control of type 1 diabetes continues to vary substantially between age groups and data sources. While some improvement over time has been observed, glycaemic control remains sub-optimal for most people with Type 1 diabetes.

The SWEET Project 10-Year Benchmarking in 19 Countries Worldwide Is Associated with Improved HbA1c and Increased Use of Diabetes Technology in Youth with Type 1 Diabetes.

Objective: The international SWEET registry (NCT04427189) was initiated in 2008 to improve outcomes in pediatric diabetes. A 10-year follow-up allowed studying time trends of key quality indicators in 22 centers from Europe, Australia, Canada, and India in youth with type 1 diabetes (T1D). Methods: Aggregated data per person with T1D <25 years of age were compared between 2008-2010 and 2016-2018. Hierarchic linear and logistic regression models were applied. Models were adjusted for gender, age-, and diabetes duration groups. Results: The first and second time periods included 4930 versus 13,654 persons, 51% versus 52% male, median age 11.3 [Q1; Q3: 7.9; 14.5] versus 13.3 [9.7; 16.4] years, and T1D duration 2.9 [0.8; 6.4] versus 4.2 [1.4; 7.7] years. The adjusted hemoglobin A1C (HbA1c) improved from 68 (95% confidence interval [CI]: 66-70) to 63 (60; 65) mmol/mol (P < 0.0001) or 8.4 (95% CI: 8.2-8.6) to 7.9 (7.6; 8.1) % (P < 0.0001). Across all age groups, HbA1c was significantly lower in pump and sensor users. Severe hypoglycemia declined from 3.8% (2.9; 5.0) to 2.4% (1.9; 3.1) (P < 0.0001), whereas diabetic ketoacidosis events increased significantly with injection therapy only. Body mass index-standard deviation score also showed significant improvements 0.55 (0.46; 0.64) versus 0.42 (0.33; 0.51) (P < 0.0001). Over time, the increase in pump use from 34% to 44% preceded the increase in HbA1c target achievement (<53 mmol/mol) from 21% to 34%. Conclusions: Twice yearly benchmarking within the SWEET registry was associated with significantly improved HbA1c on a background of increasing pump and sensor use for 10 years in young persons with T1D. Trial Registration: NCT04427189.

Losing Track of Lipids in Children and Adolescents with Type 1 Diabetes: Towards Individualized Patient Care.

AIM: To assess 1) the prevalence of children and adolescents with type 1 diabetes (T1D) changing from low-risk into borderline-high-risk lipid levels or from borderline-high-risk into high-risk lipid levels ('lose track of lipids') and 2) the power of a risk score including the determinants HbA1c, body mass index (BMI), gender, age, diabetes duration and ethnicity in predicting which patients lose track of lipids. METHODS: 651 children and adolescents with T1D were included in this longitudinal retrospective cohort study. Lipid dynamics and the impact of the risk score on losing track of lipids were evaluated. Kaplan-Meier analysis was used to estimate screening intervals. RESULTS: 31-43% percent of the patients had lost track of one or more lipids at the next lipid measurement. This happened more frequently in patients with a low-risk lipid level at start. Depending on the lipid parameter, 5% of patients with low-risk lipid levels lost track of lipids after 13-23 months. The risk score based on concomitant information on the determinants was moderately able to predict which patients would lose track of lipids on the short term. CONCLUSIONS: A considerable number of children and adolescents with T1D loses track of lipids and does so within a 2-year screening interval. The predictive power of a risk score including age, BMI, gender, HbA1c, diabetes duration and ethnicity is only moderate. Future research should focus on another approach to the determinants used in this study or other determinants predictive of losing track of lipids on the short term.

Association of diabetic ketoacidosis and HbA1c at onset with year-three HbA1c in children and adolescents with type 1 diabetes: Data from the International SWEET Registry.

OBJECTIVE: To establish whether diabetic ketoacidosis (DKA) or HbA1c at onset is associated with year-three HbA1c in children with type 1 diabetes (T1D). METHODS: Children with T1D from the SWEET registry, diagnosed <18 years, with documented clinical presentation, HbA1c at onset and follow-up were included. Participants were categorized according to T1D onset: (a) DKA (DKA with coma, DKA without coma, no DKA); (b) HbA1c at onset (low [<10%], medium [10 to <12%], high [≥12%]). To adjust for demographics, linear regression was applied with interaction terms for DKA and HbA1c at onset groups (adjusted means with 95% CI). Association between year-three HbA1c and both HbA1c and presentation at onset was analyzed (Vuong test). RESULTS: Among 1420 children (54% males; median age at onset 9.1 years [Q1;Q3: 5.8;12.2]), 6% of children experienced DKA with coma, 37% DKA without coma, and 57% no DKA. Year-three HbA1c was lower in the low compared to high HbA1c at onset group, both in the DKA without coma (7.1% [6.8;7.4] vs 7.6% [7.5;7.8], P = .03) and in the no DKA group (7.4% [7.2;7.5] vs 7.8% [7.6;7.9], P = .01), without differences between low and medium HbA1c at onset groups. Year-three HbA1c did not differ among HbA1c at onset groups in the DKA with coma group. HbA1c at onset as an explanatory variable was more closely associated with year-three HbA1c compared to presentation at onset groups (P = .02). CONCLUSIONS: Year-three HbA1c is more closely related to HbA1c than to DKA at onset; earlier hyperglycemia detection might be crucial to improving year-three HbA1c.

Persistent heterogeneity in diabetes technology reimbursement for children with type 1 diabetes: The SWEET perspective.

BACKGROUND: Frequent use of modern diabetes technologies increases the chance for optimal type 1 diabetes (T1D) control. Limited reimbursement influences the access of patients with T1D to these modalities and could worsen their prognosis. We aimed to describe the situation of reimbursement for insulins, glucometers, insulin pumps (CSII) and continuous glucose monitoring (CGM) for children with T1D in European countries participating in the SWEET Project and to compare data from EU countries with data from our previous study in 2009. METHODS: The study was conducted between March 2017 and August 2017. First, we approached diabetes technology companies with a survey to map the reimbursement of insulins and diabetic devices. The data collected from these companies were then validated by members of the SWEET consortium. RESULTS: We collected data from 29 European countries, whereas all types of insulins are mostly fully covered, heterogeneity was observed regarding the reimbursement of strips for glucometers (from 90 strips/month to no limit). CSII is readily available in 20 of 29 countries. Seven countries reported significant quota issues or obstacles for CSII prescription, and two countries had no CSII reimbursement. CGM is at least partially reimbursed in 17 of 29 countries. The comparison with the 2009 study showed an increasing availability of CSII and CGM across the EU. CONCLUSIONS: Although innovative diabetes technology is available, a large proportion of children with T1D still do not benefit from it due to its limited reimbursement.

Skin autofluorescence is increased in young people with type 1 diabetes exposed to secondhand smoking.

Skin autofluorescence is increased in diabetes, rises with age, and predicts diabetes-related complications. Exposure to secondhand smoke, because one or more family members are smokers, further increases skin autofluorescence in children and young adults with type 1 diabetes. Elimination of passive smoking should be a goal in diabetes education. Association between age and skin autofluorescence (SAF), in arbitrary units (AU), in young people with type 1 diabetes exposed (black dots) and not exposed (open dots) to secondhand smoke. Regression lines show correlations between these parameters in exposed (solid line) and not exposed (dashed line) patients.

Possibilities and challenges of a large international benchmarking in pediatric diabetology-The SWEET experience.

AIM: Despite the existence of evidence-based guidelines for the care of children with diabetes, widespread gaps in knowledge, attitude, and practice remain. The purpose of this paper is to present a review of benchmarking practices and results of this process within SWEET, moreover focusing on current challenges and future directions. METHODS: Biannually, members electronically transfer de-identified clinic data for 37 parameters to the SWEET database. Each center receives benchmarking and data validation reports. RESULTS: In 2015, 48 centers have contributed data for 20 165 unique patients (51.6% male). After exclusion for missing data 19 131 patients remain for further analysis. The median age is 14.2 years, with a median diabetes duration 4.8 years; 96.0% of patients have type 1, 1.1% type 2, and 2.9% other diabetes types. Data completeness has increased over time. In 2015, median HbA1c of all patients' (diabetes type 1) medians was 7.8% (61.7 mmol/mol) with 39.1%, 41.4%, and 19.4% of patients having HbA1c < 7.5% (58 mmol/mol), 7.5%-9% (58-75 mmol/mol) and >9% (75 mmol/mol), respectively. Although HbA1c has been stable over time [7.7%-7.8% (60.7-61.7 mmol/mol)], there remains wide variation between centers. Fourteen centers achieve a median HbA1c <7.5% (58 mmol/mol). CONCLUSIONS: Our vision is that the participation in SWEET is encouraging members to deliver increasingly accurate and complete data. Dissemination of results and prospective projects serve as further motivation to improve data reporting. Comparing processes and outcomes will help members identify weaknesses and introduce innovative solutions, resulting in improved and more uniform care for patients with diabetes.

Increased skin autofluorescence of children and adolescents with type 1 diabetes despite a well-controlled HbA1c: results from a cohort study.

BACKGROUND: Early identification of children and adolescents with type 1 diabetes at high risk for development of complications is important, as early intervention may prevent further deterioration. Here we investigate the applicability of assessing skin advanced glycation end products (sAGEs) by skin autofluorescence (SAF) as a potential surrogate risk marker. METHODS: This study included a cross-sectional analysis of SAF in 77 patients with type 1 diabetes mellitus and 118 healthy controls across age categories (11-12, 13-14, 15-16, and 17-19 years old). In patients, the impact of current and historical glycated hemoglobin (HbA1c) values, age, and duration of diabetes on SAF was studied in a retrospective cohort study and analyzed with multivariable analyses. RESULTS: SAF was significantly and similarly higher in patients when compared with controls across all age categories (P ≤0.009). For patients, age, duration of diabetes, and current and historical HbA1c were associated with SAF in univariate analysis. Multivariate analysis showed no association between HbA1c and SAF. A subgroup of patients with a HbA1c-within-target (≤7.5 %/59 mmol/mol) were observed to have high SAF. CONCLUSION: Children and adolescents with type 1 diabetes show higher SAF than controls. The presumed correlation of high HbA1c with high SAF does not exist in all patients. Thus, use of this non-invasive measure may provide a surrogate marker for diabetic complications, additional to HbA1c.

Do traditional cardiovascular risk factors solely explain intima-media thickening in youth with type 1 diabetes?

AIMS: The aim of this study was to assess age-specific carotid intima-media thickness (cIMT) in children and adolescents with type 1 diabetes and to investigate associations between cIMT, age, classical cardiovascular disease (CVD) and other risk factors. METHODS: This study included a cross-sectional analysis of cIMT in 178 patients with type 1 diabetes and 208 healthy controls across age categories. In patients, the impact of gender, socio-economic status, ethnicity, current and historical body mass index, blood pressure, hemoglobin A1c, high-density lipoprotein, and low-density lipoprotein cholesterol on cIMT was studied in a retrospective follow-up cohort study. RESULTS: Median cIMT was equally greater in patients versus controls across all age categories (P≤0.03). Regression models in patients confirmed a lack of association between cIMT and classical CVD risk factors. CONCLUSIONS: Children and adolescents with type 1 diabetes showed greater cIMT than controls in all age categories. Increased cIMT did not seem to be consistently associated with classical adult CVD risk factors, adding to the current debate in pediatrics about the impact on classical CVD risk factors to the development of subclinical atherosclerosis in type 1 diabetes. Future studies are warranted to determine if cIMT could assist in predicting macrovascular complications of type 1 diabetes.

The incidence of type 1 diabetes is still increasing in the Netherlands, but has stabilised in children under five (Young DUDEs-1).

AIM: This study described the incidence and prevalence of type 1 diabetes in children in the Netherlands in 2010-2011 and to compare these results with earlier studies. METHODS: This was a retrospective nationwide cohort study of Dutch children aged 14 years or younger. Patients were identified using health insurance reimbursement registries for hospital care and invoices for insulin. In the Netherlands, all children with diabetes are treated by hospital-based paediatricians and health care for all Dutch citizens is covered by law. RESULTS: The incidence of type 1 diabetes almost doubled between 1978-1980 and 2010-2011, from 11.1 to 21.4 per 100 000. In the youngest age group, who were under 5 years, the incidence rate doubled between 1996 and 1999 and remained stable after that. There were no relevant incidence differences between the sexes. The overall prevalence of type 1 diabetes in the Netherlands during 2009-2011 was 143.6 (95% confidence interval 141.1-146.2) per 100 000 children and was similar for boys and girls. CONCLUSION: The incidence of type 1 diabetes in children in the Netherlands almost doubled between 1978-1980 and 2010-2011, but the incidence in children under 5 years appeared to stabilise between 1996 and 1999. There were no statistical differences between the sexes.

[Virtual paediatric medicine]. / Virtuele kindergeneeskunde.

Health information technology (eHealth) can be cost-effective if it replaces existing care services. The introduction of eHealth has provided the opportunity to directly support and improve care for children with chronic diseases. We show an example of this in children with diabetes mellitus. Giving patients direct feedback on their glucose levels results in better outcomes of patient care. Accessing data from electronic patient files and using them effectively, however, is not yet possible in a number of health care institutions.

Criteria for Centers of Reference for pediatric diabetes--a European perspective.

'SWEET' is an acronym standing for 'Better control in pediatric and adolescent diabeteS: Working to crEate CEnTers of Reference (CORs)' and is based on a partnership of established national and European diabetes organizations such as International Diabetes Federation, Federation of European Nurses in Diabetes, and Primary Care Diabetes Europe (PCDE, www.sweet-project.eu). A three-level classification of centers has been put forward. In addition to centers for local care, SWEET collaborating centers on their way to being a COR have been defined. Peer-audited CORs with a continuous electronic documentation of at least 150 pediatric patients with diabetes treated by a multidisciplinary team based on the International Society for Pediatric and Adolescent Diabetes (ISPAD) Clinical Practice recommendations have been created in 12 European countries. In 2011, they cared for between 150 to more than 700 youth with diabetes with an average hemoglobin A1c between 7.6 and 9.2%. Although these clinics should not be regarded as representative for the whole country, the acknowledgment as COR includes a common objective of targets and guidelines as well as recognition of expertise in treatment and education at the center. In a first step, the SWEET Online platform allows 12 countries using 11 languages to connect to one unified diabetes database. Aggregate data are de-identified and exported for longitudinal health and economic data analysis. Through their network, the CORs wish to obtain political influence on a national and international level and to facilitate dissemination of new approaches and techniques. The SWEET project hopes to extend from the initial group of centers within countries, throughout Europe, and beyond with the help of the ISPAD network.

GAD65 antigen therapy in recently diagnosed type 1 diabetes mellitus.

BACKGROUND: The 65-kD isoform of glutamic acid decarboxylase (GAD65) is a major autoantigen in type 1 diabetes. We hypothesized that alum-formulated GAD65 (GAD-alum) can preserve beta-cell function in patients with recent-onset type 1 diabetes. METHODS: We studied 334 patients, 10 to 20 years of age, with type 1 diabetes, fasting C-peptide levels of more than 0.3 ng per milliliter (0.1 nmol per liter), and detectable serum GAD65 autoantibodies. Within 3 months after diagnosis, patients were randomly assigned to receive one of three study treatments: four doses of GAD-alum, two doses of GAD-alum followed by two doses of placebo, or four doses of placebo. The primary outcome was the change in the stimulated serum C-peptide level (after a mixed-meal tolerance test) between the baseline visit and the 15-month visit. Secondary outcomes included the glycated hemoglobin level, mean daily insulin dose, rate of hypoglycemia, and fasting and maximum stimulated C-peptide levels. RESULTS: The stimulated C-peptide level declined to a similar degree in all study groups, and the primary outcome at 15 months did not differ significantly between the combined active-drug groups and the placebo group (P=0.10). The use of GAD-alum as compared with placebo did not affect the insulin dose, glycated hemoglobin level, or hypoglycemia rate. Adverse events were infrequent and mild in the three groups, with no significant differences. CONCLUSIONS: Treatment with GAD-alum did not significantly reduce the loss of stimulated C peptide or improve clinical outcomes over a 15-month period. (Funded by Diamyd Medical and the Swedish Child Diabetes Foundation; ClinicalTrials.gov number, NCT00723411.).

Overweight children with type 1 diabetes have a more favourable lipid profile than overweight non-diabetic children.

In the present article, we aimed to compare the cardiometabolic risk between overweight children with and without type 1 diabetes (T1DM). Therefore, data with regard to cardiometabolic risk parameters of 44 overweight Caucasian children (3-18 years) with T1DM were matched with 44 overweight peers without T1DM for sex, ethnicity, age and standard deviation score of BMI (Z-BMI). Detailed history was taken, information regarding anthropometrics and family history were collected and blood pressure was measured. Blood samples were collected for evaluation of lipid profiles (fasting in controls, non-fasting in T1DM children), alanine aminotransferase and HbA1c (in children with T1DM). It was found that overweight children with T1DM had lower median standard deviation score of waist circumference (Z-WC) as compared to the overweight control group [median, 2.0 (interquartile range, IQR, 1.5-2.3) vs. 2.6 (IQR, 2.0-2.9), P < 0.001]. After adjustment for Z-WC, in children with T1DM, median high-density lipoprotein cholesterol levels were significantly higher and median low-density lipoprotein cholesterol lower in T1DM children, as compared to their peers without T1DM [1.40 (IQR, 1.2-1.5) vs. 1.2 (IQR, 1.0-1.3) and 2.7 (IQR, 2.5-3.2) vs. 3.0 (IQR, 2.5-3.4), respectively, all P < 0.01]. When dividing children according to glycaemic status, children with suboptimal glycaemic control had higher values of triglycerides as compared to well-controlled children [1.3 (IQR, 1.0-1.8) vs. 0.96 (IQR, 0.80-1.2), P = 0.036]. In conclusion, overweight children with T1DM have a more favourable lipid profile, as compared to non-diabetic overweight controls, in spite of a higher frequency of a positive family history of CVD, T2DM and hypertension. Still, paediatricians should give extra attention to cardiometabolic risk factors within this vulnerable group, taking into account the already high cardiometabolic risk.

Passive immunisation against respiratory syncytial virus: a cost-effectiveness analysis.

AIM: The cost-effectiveness of passive immunisation against respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) in the Netherlands was studied by assessing incremental costs to prevent one hospitalisation in high-risk children using a novel individualised monthly approach. METHODS: Cost-effectiveness analysis was performed by combining estimates of individual hospitalisation costs and monthly hospitalisation risks, with immunisation costs, parental costs and efficacy of passive immunisation for a reference case with the highest hospitalisation risks and costs of hospitalisation during the RSV season (male, gestational age < or =28 weeks, birth weight < or =2500 g, having bronchopulmonary dysplasia (BPD), aged 0 months at the beginning of the season (October)). Various sensitivity analyses and a cost-neutrality analysis were performed. RESULTS: Cost-effectiveness of passive immunisation varied widely by child characteristics and seasonal month. For the reference case it was most cost effective in December at euro13,190 per hospitalisation averted. Cost-effectiveness was most sensitive to changes in hospitalisation risk. For the reference case, cost neutrality was reached in December, if acquisition costs of passive immunisation decreased from euro 930 to euro 375, monthly hospitalisation risk increased from 7.6% to 17%, or hospitalisation costs increased from euro 10 250 to euro 23 250 per hospitalisation. Even if passive immunisation prevented all hospitalisations, costs per hospitalisation averted in December would still exceed euro 2645. CONCLUSIONS: Although cost-effectiveness of passive immunisation varied strongly by child characteristics and seasonal month, incremental costs per hospitalisation averted were always high. A restrictive immunisation policy only immunising children with BPD in high-risk months is therefore recommended. The costs of passive immunisation would have to be considerably reduced to achieve cost-effectiveness.